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In August 1908, a white mob attacked Springfield, Illinois’s Black community, destroying homes and businesses and lynching two Black men. National outrage over the violence helped spur the movement that created the NAACP the following year.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
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Interdental consonants are produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the upper and lower front teeth. That differs from typical dental consonants, which are articulated with the tongue against the back of the upper incisors. No language is known to contrast interdental and dental consonants.
Interdental consonants may be transcribed with the extIPA subscript plus superscript bridge (⟨◌̪⟩ + ⟨◌͆⟩ = ⟨◌̪͆⟩), as in ⟨n̪͆ t̪͆ d̪͆ θ̪͆ ð̪͆ r̪͆ ɹ̪͆ l̪͆ ɬ̪͆ ɮ̪͆⟩, but it is also common to transcribe them as advanced dentals, as in ⟨n̪̟ t̪̟ d̪̟ θ̟ ð̟ r̪̟ ɹ̪̟ l̪̟ ɬ̪̟ ɮ̪̟⟩, or even as advanced alveolars, as in ⟨n̟ t̟ d̟ r̟ ɹ̟ l̟ ɬ̟ ɮ̟⟩.
Interdental consonants are rare cross-linguistically. Interdental realisations of otherwise-dental or alveolar consonants may occur as idiosyncrasies or as coarticulatory effects of a neighbouring interdental sound. The most commonly-occurring interdental consonants are the non-sibilant fricatives (sibilants may be dental but do not appear as interdentals, except for in disordered speech). No language is known to contrast interdentals with dentals of the same manner.
Voiced and voiceless interdental fricatives [ð̟, θ̟] appear in American English as the initial sounds of words like 'then' and 'thin'. In British English, the consonants are more likely to be dental [ð, θ].
An interdental [l̟] occurs in some varieties of Italian, and it may also occur in some varieties of English though the distribution and the usage of interdental [l̟] in English are not clear.
Interdental approximants [ð̞] are found in about a dozen Philippine languages, including Kagayanen (Manobo branch), Karaga Mandaya (Mansakan branch), Kalagan (Mansakan branch), Southern Catanduanes Bicolano, and several varieties of Kalinga,[1] as well as in the Bauchi languages of Nigeria.[2] See voiced dental fricative for further description.
Interdental [ɮ̟] occurs in some dialects of Amis. Mapuche has interdental [n̟], [t̟], and [l̟].
In most Indigenous Australian languages, there is a series of "dental" consonants, written th, nh, and (in some languages) lh. They are always laminal (pronounced by touching with the blade of the tongue) but may be formed in one of three different ways, depending on the language, the speaker, and how carefully the speaker pronounces the sound. They are apical interdental [t̺͆~d̺͆ n̺͆ l̺͆] with the tip of the tongue visible between the teeth, as in th in American English; laminal interdental [t̻͆~d̻͆ n̻͆ l̻͆] with the tip of the tongue down behind the lower teeth, so that the blade is visible between the teeth; and denti-alveolar [t̻̪~d̻̪ n̻̪ l̻̪], that is, with both the tip and the blade making contact with the back of the upper teeth and alveolar ridge, as in French t, d, n, l.
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Interdental consonants are produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the upper and lower front teeth. That differs from typical dental consonants, which are articulated with the tongue against the back of the upper incisors. No language is known to contrast interdental and dental consonants. Interdental consonants may be transcribed with the extIPA subscript plus superscript bridge (⟨◌̪⟩ + ⟨◌͆⟩ = ⟨◌̪͆⟩), as in ⟨n̪͆ t̪͆ d̪͆ θ̪͆ ð̪͆ r̪͆ ɹ̪͆ l̪͆ ɬ̪͆ ɮ̪͆⟩, but it is also common to transcribe them as advanced dentals, as in ⟨n̪̟ t̪̟ d̪̟ θ̟ ð̟ r̪̟ ɹ̪̟ l̪̟ ɬ̪̟ ɮ̪̟⟩, or even as advanced alveolars, as in ⟨n̟ t̟ d̟ r̟ ɹ̟ l̟ ɬ̟ ɮ̟⟩. Interdental consonants are rare cross-linguistically. Interdental realisations of otherwise-dental or alveolar consonants may occur as idiosyncrasies or as coarticulatory effects of a neighbouring interdental sound. The most commonly-occurring interdental consonants are the non-sibilant fricatives (sibilants may be dental but do not appear as interdentals, except for in disordered speech). No language is known to contrast interdentals with dentals of the same manner.
The palatal hook (◌̡) is a hook diacritic formerly used in the International Phonetic Alphabet to mark palatalized consonants. It is a small, leftwards-facing hook joined to the bottom-right side of a letter that derives from a subscript letter j, and it is distinct from other IPA hooks that indicate retroflexion, implosion and rhotic vowels. Theoretically, it could be used on all IPA consonant letters – even on those used for palatal consonants – but it is not attested on all of the IPA letters of its era. It was withdrawn by the IPA in 1989, in favor of a superscript j following the consonant (i.e., ⟨ƫ⟩ was replaced with ⟨tʲ⟩). The IPA recommended that esh ⟨ ʃ ⟩ and ezh ⟨ʒ⟩ not use the palatal hook, but instead get special curled symbols: ⟨ ʆ ⟩ and ⟨ʓ⟩. The same has been done with ⟨ɮ⟩: ⟨⟩. However, versions with the hook have been used and are supported by Unicode, excluding unattested ⟨ɮ⟩. Palatal hooks are also used for Lithuanian dialectology in the Lithuanian Phonetic Transcription System (or Lithuanian Phonetic Alphabet), including the exceptional form ꞔ, which while graphically resembling a c plus palatal hook is actually a variant of the ᶃ once recommended by the IPA.
Heng is a letter of the Latin alphabet, originating as a typographic ligature of h and ŋ. It was originally used for a voiceless [j]-like sound in Dania transcription of the Danish language (in Dania, it is considered a ligature of h and j). Heng was used word-finally in early transcriptions of Mayan languages, where it may have represented a uvular fricative. It is sometimes used to write Judeo-Tat. Heng has been occasionally used by phonologists to represent a jocular phoneme in English, which includes both [h] and [ŋ] as its allophones, to illustrate the limited usefulness of minimal pairs to distinguish phonemes. /h/ and /ŋ/ are separate phonemes in English, even though no minimal pair for them exists due to their complementary distribution. Heng is also used in Bantu linguistics to indicate a voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ]. Heng was also historically used in the IPA for this sound, and later a compromise form between the two symbols ⟨⟩ was used.
A voiced alveolar lateral affricate is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet is ⟨d͡ɮ⟩ (often simplified to ⟨dɮ⟩), and in Americanist phonetic notation it is ⟨λ⟩ (lambda). It is rarely a phoneme of its own, usually being in free variation with or an allophone of [ɮ], [t͡ɬ] or [l].
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Madam C.J. Walker
