q2K BHP
Black History Portal
THE BHP WIRE —
HIDDEN TRUTHS
GREENWOOD / BLACK WALL STREET WILMINGTON 1898 LITTLE ROCK NINE TUSKEGEE STUDY ROSEWOOD 1923 THE TUSKEGEE AIRMEN SENECA VILLAGE BLACK TOWNS GREENWOOD / BLACK WALL STREET WILMINGTON 1898 LITTLE ROCK NINE TUSKEGEE STUDY ROSEWOOD 1923 THE TUSKEGEE AIRMEN SENECA VILLAGE BLACK TOWNS
What's New!
THE JOURNEY THROUGH TIME
BHP HOME BEFORE AMERICA 1800–1936 1937–1957 1958–1980 1981–2000 2001–PRESENT

Explore Black History

Explore the people, places, events, achievements, struggles and stories that shaped our journey.

✊🏾

Civil Rights

Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.

⚙️

Black Inventors

Innovation, patents, science, technology and world-changing contributions.

🏆

Sports

Pioneers, champions, Negro Leagues, records, activism and excellence.

♟️

People

Meet the people whose lives, choices and achievements shaped the journey.

📍

Places

Black towns, communities, institutions and places where history happened.

📜

Events

Moments that changed communities, movements, institutions and the nation.

Enter a person, place, event, or topic.
MY'STORY

The MOVE Fire

This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985 Philadelphia police fired thousands of rounds at the MOVE house, city officials approved dropping an explosive device on the roof, the resulting fire was allowed to burn, 11 people—including five children—died, and 61 homes were destroyed. Philadelphia City Council later called it a “brutal attack carried out by the City of Philadelphia on its own citizens” and acknowledged that no individual faced criminal consequences for the bombing. One timeline correction worth preserving for the BHP record: the major previous MOVE-police confrontation was August 8, 1978, about seven years before the bombing, not a year or two earlier. Officer James Ramp was killed, other police and firefighters were wounded, nine MOVE members were later convicted, and television cameras recorded police beating Delbert Africa during his arrest. The 1985 MOVE Commission later specifically criticized city planners for failing to adequately use lessons from that 1978 confrontation. And that actually strengthens the point you’re making: 1985 did not happen without precedent or institutional memory. There had already been a deadly confrontation with MOVE, years of conflict, negotiations and police involvement before Osage Avenue.

MORE →
BLACK FACTS
The Truths They Never Taught You...

Shirley Chisholm — Unbought and Unbossed

In 1968 Shirley Chisholm became the first Black woman elected to the United States Congress. In 1972 she launched a campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination, breaking another political barrier.

MORE →
BHP gathered finds from its connected research sources. Showing the 4 strongest Black History matches.
← BACK TO RESULTS
Wikipedia

Al-Shawkani

Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah al-Shawkani
TitleShaykh al-Islam, Imam, Qadi[1]
Personal life
Born11 July 1759 CE /1173 AH
Died30 October 1834 CE /1250 AH
Sana'a, Yemen
RegionSouth Arabia
Main interest(s)Fiqh, Hadith, Aqeedah
Notable workNayl al-Awtar
OccupationHistoriographer, bibliographer, Islamic scholar, jurist
Religious life
ReligionIslam
DenominationSunni[2][3][4][5][6][7]
JurisprudenceSalafi[8][9][10][11]
(with Zahiri influences)[12]
CreedAthari[13][14][15]
Muslim leader
PostChief Qadi of Yemen (1795–1834)
Influenced by
Influenced
Arabic name
Personal
(Ism)		Muḥammad
محمد
Patronymic
(Nasab)		ibn ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn ʻAbd Allah
بن علي بن محمد بن عبدالله
Teknonymic
(Kunya)		Abu ʻAlī
أبو علي
Toponymic
(Nisba)		Al-Shawkānī
الشوكاني

Muḥammad ibn Ali ibn Muḥammad ibn Abd Allah, better known as al-Shawkani (Arabic: الشوكاني) (11 July 1759–30 October 1834) was a prominent Yemeni Sunni Islamic scholar, jurist, theologian and reformer.[18][19][20][21] Al-Shawkani was one of the most influential proponents of Athari theology and is respected as one of their canonical scholars by Salafi Muslims. His teachings played a major role in the emergence of the Salafi movement.[22][23][24] Influenced by the teachings of the medieval Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya, al-Shawkani became noteworthy for his staunch stances against the practice of Taqlid (imitation to legal schools), calls for direct interpretation of Scriptures, opposition to Kalam (speculative theology) as well as for his robust opposition to various Sufi practices which he condemned as Shirk (idolatry).[25][26][27][28]

Name

[edit]

His full name was Muhammad Ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Abdullah al-Shawkani.[29] The surname "ash-Shawkani" is derived from Hijrah ash-Shawkan, which is a town outside Sanaa.[30]

Biography

[edit]

Born into a Zaydi Shi'a Muslim family, ash-Shawkani later on converted to Sunni Islam.[18][31][21] He called for a return to the textual sources of the Quran and Hadith. As a result, ash-Shawkani opposed much of the Zaydi doctrines and engaged in vigorous Sunnification campaigns across Yemen during his tenure as Chief Qadi.[32][33] He also opposed Sufism and mystical practices of Sufi orders, considering them to be an affront to Tawhid (monotheism).[34][35] Ash-Shawkani is considered as a mujtahid, or authority to whom others in the Muslim community have to defer in details of religious law. Of his work issuing fatwas (judicial verdicts), ash-Shawkani stated "I acquired knowledge without a price and I wanted to give it thus."[36] Part of the fatwa-issuing work of many noted scholars typically is devoted to the giving of ordinary opinions to private questioners. Ash-Shawkani refers both to his major fatwas, which were collected and preserved as a book, and to his "shorter" fatwas, which he said "could never be counted" and which were not recorded.[37] Ash-Shawkani was known to be influenced by the thought of Dawud al-Zahiri school of jurisprudence and also practicing the jurisprudential independent thinking or ijtihad.[12]

He is credited with developing a series of syllabi for attaining various ranks of scholarship and used a strict system of legal analysis based on Sunni thought. He insisted that the ulama were required to ask for textual evidence, that the gate of ijtihad was not closed and that the mujtahid was to do ijtihad independent of any madhhab, a view which stemmed from his opposition to taqlid for a mujtahid, which he deemed to be a vice with which the Shariah had been inflicted.[38] Al-Shawkani asserted that the decline of the Muslim community was due to their distancing from the Scriptures, the principle sources of religion. Hence he condemned the principle of taqlid and proposed ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) as the solution of the problems faced by Muslims.[39] Shawkani equated unyielding imitation to the madhhabs as a type of shirk (polytheism) and accused scholars promoting such methodology of apostasy.[40]

Al-Shawkani wrote the book Nayl al-Autar, a major reference in Islamic law. He also wrote several treatises condemning various popular mystical practices which he viewed to be shirk (polytheism). He praised the contemporary Arabian Islamic reformer Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) who had advocated for similar views and refuted his Yemeni theological opponents in correspondence. Upon hearing the death of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, al-Shawkani wrote a poem praising his efforts to eradicate shirk, defend Tawhid and his call to Quran and Hadith.[41][42] Reviving the classical theologian Taqi al-Din ibn Taymiyya's (1263 - 1328 CE/ 661 - 728 AH) doctrines on Tawḥīd and shirk, al-Shawkānī equated the adherents of Sufi orders to the pagan Arabs of Quraysh.[43]

The Imam of Yemen Mansur Ali appointed al-Shawkani as the Chief Qadi of Yemen in 1795, an office he held until his death.[44] He made a powerful critique of Zaydism, arguing that many Zaydi theological and legal doctrines have no basis in Scriptures. Meanwhile, Zaydis believed that their Imams of Ahl al-Bayt (Prophetic family) had stronger authority than the Sunni Hadith collections; which was the heavy focus of al-Shawkani's approach.[45] Zaydi doctrines also stipulated that unjust rulers be removed and replaced by a just Imam, through force, if necessary. In contrast, al-Shawkani supported the Quietist Sunni doctrine that necessitated obedience to rulers, even the unjust who lacked qualifications. Hence, the ruling Qasimid dynasty of Yemen supported scholars like al-Shawkani who legitimized their dynastic rule.[46]

As chief judge from 1795 until 1834, al-Shawkani implemented his reformist project with state-backing and placed many of his students in positions of influence, who subsequently carried on his legacy into the 21st century. During the 1796 and 1802 street clashes between Sunni traditionalists and Zaydi Shi'ites, al-Shawkani was able to convince the Qasimid rulers to side with the Sunnis. He also campaigned for the 1825 execution of the Zaydi scholar Ibn Hariwa who criticised al-Shawkani's Sunnification efforts and state policies. Due to the official patronage of al-Shawkani and other Sunni scholars, Zaydi clerics were unable to stop the spread of Hadith-centric approach of al-Shawkani and his students; who upheld the authority of Sunni Hadith over the opinions of Zaydi Imams. Hence, the Zaydis viewed al-Shawkani as seeking to undermine Zaydism by creating a sect modelled on the Ahl al-Hadith school.[46][47]

Acting as al-Mansur's secretary, Shawkani would often correspond with the leaders of the Emirate of Diriyah between 1807 and 1813.[44] Defending the Saudi rulers, ash-Shawkani refuted the allegations that they were from the Khawarij since they followed Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab who learned Hadith from the scholars of Medina and they campaigned against superstitious beliefs prevalent in Najd acting upon the views of the Hanbali scholars Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya.[48] The reform efforts of ash-Shawkani throughout the 39 years of his tenure as Chief Judge would fundamentally transform the religious landscape of Yemen. By his death in 1834, the Qasimid rulers had fully turned from Hadawi principles to embrace Sunni-style traditionism.[49]

Legacy

[edit]

Muhammad ash-Shawkani is widely regarded as one of the most prolific Hadith scholars of his time; whose ideas influenced later Salafi movements. He played a major role in the revival of the works of medieval theologian Ibn Taymiyya.[50] He was one of the most prominent figures in the late lineage of hadith-oriented Sunni scholars that emerged in Yemen with Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Wazir (d. 1436 A.C).[46] Salafis in Sa'ada, would later claim ash-Shawkani as an intellectual precursor. Future Yemeni regimes would uphold his Sunnization policies as a unifier of the country,[51] invoking his teachings to undermine Zaydi Shi'ism under the broad label of "Islamic reform".[52][53] Ash-Shawkani is popularly deemed as a Mujaddid of his era by adherents of the Wahhabi and various Salafi movements.[54]

Beyond Yemen, his works are widely used in Sunni schools.[17] He also profoundly influenced the Ahl-i Hadith in the Indian subcontinent (such as Siddiq Hasan Khan) and Salafis across the globe.[55] Much of the Ahl-i Hadith literature condemning grave-visits (ziyarat) and idolatry (shirk) was modelled on the literature of Yemeni scholarship, most notably al-Shawkani, who followed the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim. In recognition of his contributions, Siddiq Hasan Khan ranked al-Shawkani as amongst the "Huffāz al-Islām" (greatest guardians of Islam) alongside Ibn Taymiyya, Ibn Qayyim and Ibn al-'Amir al-San'ani.[56] Apart from the Ahl-i Hadith, the Wahhabis also often refer to al-Shawkani for legitimacy; citing his support for Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab.[57]

Ash-Shawkani had been a prominent representative of the traditionalist school that advocated Ibn Taymiyya's doctrines such as opposition to Falsafa (Islamic philosophy), Kalam (scholastic theology), Isrāʾīliyyāt, etc. emphasising literalist interpretations of the Qur’an.[58] Alongside Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (1703-1762 A.C), Shawkani made significant contributions to the field of Tafsir (Qur'anic exegesis) during the era of revivalist trends of 18th and early 19th centuries. He completed his seminal Qur'anic commentary Fath al-Qadir in 1814, which demonstrated remarkable methodological similarities to Fawz al-Kabir, the Tafsir work compiled a few decades earlier by Shah Waliullah. Ash-Shawkani's Qur'anic interpretations demonstrated a firm belief in Scriptural perfection; which upheld that literal meanings of the Qurʾān and the Sunnah, are to be the sole authoritative sources of exegesis. Fath al-Qadir laid the groundwork for future reformist exegetical endeavours; such as Ṣiddīq Ḥasan Khān’s Fatḥ al-Bayān, Syrian Salafi reformer Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi's Maḥāsin al-Taʾwīl and Muhammad Rashid Rida's Tafsir al-Manar.[59]

Works

[edit]

He has been described as "an erudite, prolific, and original writer who composed more than 150 books (many of which are multivolume works)",[60] some of his publications including:

  • Nayl al-Awtar
  • Fath al-Qadir, a well known tafsir (exegesis)
  • al-Badr at-Tali
  • Tuhfatu al-Dhakirin – Sharh Uddatu Hisna al-Haseen: a superb one volume commentary on the collection "Uddatu Hisna al-Haseen", on ahadith of Adhkar, by Ibn Al-Jazari (d. 833H)
  • Al-Fawaid al-Majmu'ah fil Ahadith al-Maudhuah a collection of fabricated hadith
  • Irshad al-Fuhul – a book on Usul al-fiqh
  • Ad-Durur al-Bahiyyah fil-Masaa'il il-Fiqhiyyah – a concise Fiqh manual
  • Ad-Daraaree al-Mudhiyyah Sharh ad-Durur il-Bahiyyah – his detailed explanation of his Fiqh manual
  • Adab at-Talab wa Muntaha al-Arab – advice on the etiquette and manners of one who is seeking Islamic knowledge
  • Al-Qawl al-Mufeed fi Hukm at-Taqlid – an explanation of the ruling regarding blind following (Taqlid) of the opinions of Fiqh schools (Madhahib) and its harms.
  • Al-Sayl al-Jarrar - includes the denunciation of a text written by the Zaydi Imam Al-Mahdi Ahmad bin Yahya.[61]

See also

[edit]
Wikisource logo
Arabic Wikisource has original text related to this article:

References

[edit]
  • Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad al-Shawkani by Bernard Haykel
  1. ^ ibn Ali al Shawkani, Muhammad (2009). A Critique of the ruling of Al-Taqlid. Birmingham, UK: Dar al Arqam Publishing. pp. 3–4, 12–13. ISBN 978-1-9164756-4-9.
  2. ^ Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 606. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. a number of influential thinkers abandoned Zaydism for Sunnism. The best known of these are Muhammad b. Isma'il al-San'ani (d. 1769), Muhammad b. 'Ali al-Shawkani (d. 1834), and more recently Muqbil al-Wadi'i (d. 2001)
  3. ^ Moreau, Schaar, Odile, Stuart (2016). Subversives and Mavericks in the Muslim Mediterranean: A Subaltern History. United States of America: University of Texas Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-1477319956.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Ahmed, Chanfi (2015). "4: The Dār al-Ḥadīth in Medina and the Ahl al-Ḥadīth". West African ʿulamāʾ and Salafism in Mecca and Medina Jawāb al-Ifrῑqῑ—The Response of the African. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 97. ISBN 978-90-04-27031-2. "He taught both at the mosque and in his home, and was a prolific author who wrote in defense of Sunnī Islam.."
  5. ^ Hanssen, Weiss, Jens, Max (2016). Arabic Thought Beyond the Liberal Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the Nahda. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 9781107136335.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Saint-Prot, Charles (1999). Happy Arabia : from antiquity to Ali Abdullah Salih, the Yemeni unifier. USA: University of Michigan. p. 31. ISBN 9781107136335. "In the late 18th century they supported the reform movement of the Sunni theologian Muhamed bin Ali al - Shawkani ( 1750-1834).."
  7. ^ Ala Hamoudi, Cammack, Haider, Mark (2018). Islamic Law in Modern Courts. USA: Aspen Publishing. p. 576. ISBN 9781454830399.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Ali, Mohamed Bin. "Salafis, salafism and modern salafism: what lies behind a term?." (2015).
  9. ^ Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 484, 506. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. Shawkani .. is a prominent authority for the Salafi version of Islam
  10. ^ Haykel, Hegghammer, Lacroix, Bernard, Thomas, Stéphane (2015). Saudi Arabia in Transition: Insights on Social, Political, Economic and Religious Change. New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ISBN 9781107006294.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Orkaby, Asher (2021). Yemen: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York, USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 120, 160. ISBN 9780190932268.
  12. ^ a b Ahmad Farid Al-Mazidi (2023). المذهب العارف ومذاهب أخرى (دائرة المعارف -8-). f Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية‎. pp. iii, 28, 31. ISBN 978-2745182647. Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  13. ^ Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 506–507. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. al-Shawkani, Muhammad b. 'Ali (1760–1834)... dismissed speculative theology (kalām) and reason-based arguments as idle talk and was a staunch Salafi in matters of creed
  14. ^ Haykel, Bernard (2003). "The Absolute Interpreter and Renewer of the Thirteenth Century AH". Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 9780521528900. Shawkänī, as was mentioned already, was opposed to kaläm, which he regarded as a science that led to more confusion than clarity for the believer. He admits that he felt confused by it (lam azdad bihā illā þpiratan) and he found it to consist of idle talk (khuza"balār)... Shawkānī appears to fit more properly, though perhaps not entirely, in the Hanbalī tradition, which rejected outright many of the theological claims made by the various schools of kalām.
  15. ^ Beránek, Ťupek, Ondřej, Pavel (2018). The Temptation of Graves in Salafi Islam: Iconoclasm, Destruction and Idolatry. The Tun -Holyrood Road, 12 (2f) Jackson's Entry, Edinburgh EH8 8PJ: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 7, 47, 73. ISBN 978-1-4744-1757-0. Muhammad al-Shawkani (d. 1839), a famous Yemeni traditionalist and reformer..." "The legacies of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya were also palpable in Arabia in the eighteenth-century traditionalist movement. In Yemen, the most prominent figures in this movement were Muhammad ibn Ismaʿil al-Sanʿani (referred to as al-Amir al-Sanʿani, d. 1769) and Muhammad al Shawkani (d. 1839).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Nafi, Basheer M. "Abu al-Thana'al-Alusi: An Alim, Ottoman Mufti, and Exegete of the Qur'an." International Journal of Middle East Studies 34.3 (2002): 465-494. "...al-Shawkani (1760–1834), were all, in varying degrees, interested in Ibn Taymiyya's intellectual legacy."
  17. ^ a b Oxford University Press (1 May 2010). Islam in Yemen: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 9780199804351.
  18. ^ a b Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 606. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. a number of influential thinkers abandoned Zaydism for Sunnism. The best known of these are Muhammad b. Isma'il al-San'ani (d. 1769), Muhammad b. 'Ali al-Shawkani (d. 1834), and more recently Muqbil al-Wadi'i (d. 2001).
  19. ^ Moreau, Schaar, Odile, Stuart (2016). Subversives and Mavericks in the Muslim Mediterranean: A Subaltern History. United States of America: University of Texas Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-1477319956.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Saint-Prot, Charles (1999). Happy Arabia: From Antiquity to Ali Abdullah Salih, the Yemeni Unifier. USA: University of Michigan. p. 31. ISBN 9781107136335.
  21. ^ a b Ala Hamoudi, Cammack, Haider, Mark (2018). Islamic Law in Modern Courts. USA: Aspen Publishing. p. 576. ISBN 9781454830399.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Thurston, Alexander (2016). Salafism in Nigeria Islam, Preaching, and Politics. University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-1-107-15743-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  23. ^ Azoulay, Rivki (2020). Kuwait and Al-Sabah: Tribal Politics and Power in an Oil State. London, UK: I.B. Tauris. p. 224. ISBN 9781838605070.
  24. ^ Pall, Zoltan (2013). Lebanese Salafis between the Gulf and Europe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-90-8964-451-0.
  25. ^ Moussa, Mohammed (2016). "3: Renewal in the Formation of the Islamic Tradition". Politics of the Islamic Tradition: The Thought of Muhammad al-Ghazali. New York, USA: Routledge. pp. 56–59. ISBN 978-1-138-84121-5.
  26. ^ Leaman, Oliver (2022). Routledge Handbook of Islamic Ritual and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-367-49123-9.
  27. ^ Vassiliev, Alexei (1998). The History of Saudi Arabia. London, UK: Saqi Books. p. 146. ISBN 0-86356-399-6.
  28. ^ Carr, Mahalingam, Brian, Indira (1997). Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. London, UK: Routledge. p. 931. ISBN 0-203-01350-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ "Dogs in the Islamic Tradition and Nature (Article Included)". Scholar of the House.
  30. ^ Al-Badr at-Taali' bi Mahaasin man Ba'd al-Qarn as-Sabi' , Vol. 2 p. 214.
  31. ^ Moreau, Schaar, Odile, Stuart (2016). Subversives and Mavericks in the Muslim Mediterranean: A Subaltern History. United States of America: University of Texas Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-1477319956. Al-Shawkani... converted to Sunni Islam.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Farhad Daftary (2 Dec 2013). A History of Shi'i Islam (revised ed.). I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857735249. In his view, Zaydi theological and legal teachings had no basis in revelation but reflected the unsubstantiated opinions of the Zaydi imams and therefore had to be rejected.
  33. ^ Hanssen, Weiss, Jens, Max (2016). Arabic Thought Beyond the Liberal Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the Nahda. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 9781107136335.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Farhad Daftary (2 Dec 2013). A History of Shi'i Islam (revised ed.). I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857735249. Al-Shawkani also manifested the general Zaydi, as well as traditionist Sunni, aversion towards Sufism.
  35. ^ Knysh, Alexander (2017). Islam in Historical Perspective (2nd ed.). 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017: Routledge. p. 238. ISBN 978-1-138-19369-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  36. ^ Messick, Brinkly The Calligraphic State: Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society, Berkeley 1993, p. 145.
  37. ^ Messick, Brinkly The Calligraphic State: Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society, Berkeley 1993, p. 150.
  38. ^ Hallaq, Wael B. (1984). "Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 16 (1). Cambridge University Press: 32–33. doi:10.1017/S0020743800027598. JSTOR 162939. S2CID 159897995.
  39. ^ Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 506. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0.
  40. ^ L. Esposito, O. Voll, John, John (2001). "1: Introduction: Muslim Activist Intellectuals and Their Place in History". Makers of Contemporary Islam. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 0-19-514128-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ Abualrab, Jalal (2013). Biography and Mission of Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab. New York, NY: Madinah Publishers and Distributors. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-9856326-9-4.
  42. ^ ul Haq, Asim (August 2011). "Imam al-Shawkani (d. 1250H) on the Writings, Da'wah and Adversaries of Shaykh Muhammad Bin Abd Al-Wahhab". 'Wahhabis'.com. Archived from the original on 24 July 2014.
  43. ^ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). Manifest Enmity: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932). Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University. p. 223. Ibn al-Amīr and al-Shawkānī took issue with the cult of saints on the same grounds on the same grounds as Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb: they both adopted Ibn Taymiyya's ideas concerning tawḥīd and shirk and compared the participants in the cult of saints (al-qubūriyyūn) to the pagan Arabs of Quraysh, arguing that the latter were in reality monotheists.
  44. ^ a b Peters, Rudolph (September 1980). "Ijtihad and Taqlid in 18th and 19th century Islam" (PDF). Die Welt des Islams. XX, 3–4. University of Amsterdam: 134. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2019.
  45. ^ Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 507. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. Zaydis continue to insist that their imams, as members of the Prophet's family, are more authoritative sources for religious teachings than the Sunni canonical hadith collections on which Shawkani's interpretive methodology is so heavily focused.
  46. ^ a b c Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 507. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0.
  47. ^ Afzal Upal, M. Cusack, Muhammad, Carole (2021). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 220. ISBN 978-90-04-42525-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ ul Haq, Asim (16 September 2020). "Al Shawkani refuted the notion that followers of Shaykh Muhammad bin Abdil Wahaab are Khawarij". System of Life. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021.
  49. ^ Afzal Upal, M. Cusack, Muhammad, Carole (2021). Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 220. ISBN 978-90-04-42525-5. In 1795, al-Manṣūr ʿAlī (r. 1775–1809) appointed al-Shawkānī to the post of chief judge. He would hold this position for the next thirty-nine years, serving three Qāsimī Imāms and, in the process, fundamentally altering the religious landscape of Yemen... When al-Shawkānī died in 1834, the Qāsimī Imāms had fully embraced Sunnī traditionism... The result was a split among Zaydī scholars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries between those with a classical understanding of Zaydism (the Hādawī position) and those with a commitment to a traditionism that resembled Sunnism (the al-Shawkānī position).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Beránek, Ťupek, Ondřej, Pavel (2018). The Temptation of Graves in Salafi Islam: Iconoclasm, Destruction and Idolatry. The Tun, Holyrood Road, 12 (2f) Jackson's Entry, Edinburgh EH8 8PJ: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 12, 77, 223. ISBN 978-1-4744-1757-0. Al-Shawkani was an outstanding scholar of hadith of his time, who made a lasting impression on later Salafi thought in Yemen, India, Iraq and Syria" ... "Among the most influential of these scholars who shaped later Salafism was the Yemeni scholar Muhammad al-Shawkani.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^ Barak A. Salmoni; Bryce Loidolt; Madeleine Wells (28 Apr 2010). Regime and Periphery in Northern Yemen: The Huthi Phenomenon. Rand Corporation. p. 72. ISBN 9780833049742.
  52. ^ Farhad Daftary (2 Dec 2013). A History of Shi'i Islam (revised ed.). I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857735249. Since 1962, republicans in Yaman have continuously used al-Shawkani's teachings and works to undermine the past doctrines of the Zaydi imamate and Zaydi Shi'ism itself. The modern Yamani state has indeed pursued an anti-Zaydi policy in the guise of Islamic reform, drawing extensively on al-Shawkani's teachings.
  53. ^ Bowering, Gerhard, ed. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 507. ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0. The modern Yemeni state has indeed pursued an anti-Zaydi policy and justifies this under the broad label of Islamic reform and by invoking Shawkani's teachings.
  54. ^ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 290. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. Shawkani, Muhammad al- (d. 1834) ...he is regarded as a great revivalist of Sunni Islam in his time by various Salafi and Wahhabi movements...
  55. ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan, eds. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought (illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 507. ISBN 9780691134840.
  56. ^ Beránek, Ťupek, Ondřej, Pavel (2018). "2: Early Wahhabism and the Beginnings of Modern Salafism". The Temptation of Graves in Salafi Islam: Iconoclasm, Destruction and Idolatry. The Tun, Holyrood Road, 12 (2f) Jackson's Entry, Edinburgh EH8 8PJ: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-1-4744-1757-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ^ Beránek, Ťupek, Ondřej, Pavel (2018). "2: Early Wahhabism and the Beginnings of Modern Salafism". The Temptation of Graves in Salafi Islam: Iconoclasm, Destruction and Idolatry. The Tun, Holyrood Road, 12 (2f) Jackson's Entry, Edinburgh EH8 8PJ: Edinburgh University Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4744-1757-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ Shah, Muhammad, Mustafa, Muhammad; Pink, Johanna (2020). "55: Classical Qur'anic Hermeneutics". The Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies. Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p. 829. ISBN 978-0-19-969864-6. A different strand of the scripturalist tradition, represented by al-Shawkānī (d. 1250/1834), shares Ibn Taymiyya's mistrust of philosophy, scholastic theology, isrāʾīliyyāt, and 'heretical' opinions, but places more emphasis on the 'literal meaning' of the Qur'an.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ Schmidtke, Sabine; Pink, Johanna (2014). "Striving for a New Exegesis of the Qurʾān". The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. New York, United States of America: Oxford University Press. pp. 768–770. ISBN 978-0-19-969670-3.
  60. ^ Ahmad S. Dallal, Islam without Europe: Traditions of Reform in Eighteenth-Century Islamic Thought, UNC Press Books (2018), p. 11.
  61. ^ Daftary, Farhad (2 Dec 2013). A History of Shi'i Islam (Revised ed.). I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857735249. In his book entitled al-Sayl al-Jarrar, al-Shawkani denounced the Kitab al-Azhar fi Fiqh al-A'immat al-Athar of Imam al-Mahdi Ahmad b. Yahya al-Murtada (d. 830/1437), the legal corpus of opinions recognised by the Hadawi Zaydi school, which, according to him, represented opinions not rooted in the revelation.

Further reading

[edit]

Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.

No preview image
Wikipedia

Al-Shawkani

Muḥammad ibn Ali ibn Muḥammad ibn Abd Allah, better known as al-Shawkani (Arabic: الشوكاني) (11 July 1759–30 October 1834) was a prominent Yemeni Sunni Islamic scholar, jurist, theologian and reformer. Al-Shawkani was one of the most influential proponents of Athari theology and is respected as one of their canonical scholars by Salafi Muslims. His teachings played a major role in the emergence of the Salafi movement. Influenced by the teachings of the medieval Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya, al-Shawkani became noteworthy for his staunch stances against the practice of Taqlid (imitation to legal schools), calls for direct interpretation of Scriptures, opposition to Kalam (speculative theology) as well as for his robust opposition to various Sufi practices which he condemned as Shirk (idolatry).

MORE →
Wikipedia

Siddiq Hasan Khan

Sayyid Muḥammad Ṣiddīq Ḥasan Khān al-Qannawjī (14 October 1832 – 26 May 1890) was an Islamic scholar and leader of British India's Muslim community in the 19th century, often considered to be the most important Muslim scholar of the Bhopal State. He is largely credited alongside Syed Nazeer Husain with founding the revivalist Ahl-i Hadith movement, which is a strain of Sunni Islam throughout the immediate region. Siddiq Hasan Khan was also a prominent scholarly authority of the Arab Salafiyya movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Khan's controversial nature has led to contrasting assessments of his personality, having been described by contrasting sources as a fundamentalist, and one of the first heroes of the Indian independence movement. As one of the central figures of the early Ahl-i Ḥadīth networks, Siddiq Hasan Khan was also a major South Asian exponent of the teachings of the classical theologian ibn Taymiyya (661–728 A.H /1263–1328 C.E). Apart from ibn Taymiyya, Siddiq Hasan Khan was also influenced by the scholarly traditions of al-Shawkani, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and Sayyid Ahmed.

MORE →
Wikipedia

Al-Ghazali

Al-Ghazali (Persian: ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد غزالی طوسی, romanized: Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad Ghazālī Ṭūsi; c. 1058 – 19 December 1111), latinized as Algazelus, was a Shafi'i Ash'ari Sunni Muslim scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, theologians, logicians and mystics in Islamic history. He is considered by Sunni Muslims to be the 11th century's mujaddid, a renewer of the faith, who, according to the prophetic hadith, appears once every 100 years to restore the faith of the Islamic community. Al-Ghazali's works were so highly acclaimed by his contemporaries that he was awarded the honorific title "Proof of Islam" (Ḥujjat al-Islām). Al-Ghazali was a prominent mujtahid in the Shafi'i school of law. Much of al-Ghazali's work stemmed around his spiritual crises following his appointment as the head of the Nizamiyya of Baghdad, which was the most prestigious academic position in the Muslim world at the time. This led to his eventual disappearance from the Muslim world for over 10 years, realising he chose the path of status and ego over God. It was during this period where many of his great works were written. He believed that the Islamic spiritual tradition had become moribund and that the spiritual sciences taught by the first generation of Muslims had been forgotten. This belief led him to write his magnum opus entitled Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences"). Among his other works, the Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") is a landmark in the history of philosophy, as it advances the critique of Aristotelian science developed later in 14th-century Europe.

MORE →
Wikipedia

Al-Kindi

Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (; Arabic: أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; Latin: Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was a Mesopotamian Arab polymath who was active as a philosopher, mathematician, physician, and music theorist. Al-Kindi was the first of the Islamic peripatetic philosophers, and is hailed as the "father of Arab philosophy". Al-Kindi was born in Kufa and educated in Baghdad. He became a prominent figure in the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), an institute of translation and learning patronized by the Abbasid caliphs, in Baghdad, and a number of Abbasid caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into the Arabic language. This contact with "the philosophy of the ancients" (as Hellenistic philosophy was often referred to by Muslim scholars) had a profound effect on him, as he synthesized, adapted and promoted Hellenistic and Peripatetic philosophy in the Muslim world. He subsequently wrote hundreds of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects, from metaphysics, ethics, logic and psychology, to medicine, pharmacology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology and optics, and further afield to more practical topics like perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology, tides, mirrors, meteorology and earthquakes. In the field of mathematics, al-Kindi played an important role in introducing Hindu-Arabic numerals to the Islamic world, and their further development into Arabic numerals along with al-Khwarizmi, which eventually were adopted by the rest of the world. Al-Kindi was also one of the fathers of cryptography. Building on the work of al-Khalil (717–786), Al-Kindi's book entitled Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages gave rise to the birth of cryptanalysis, was the earliest known use of statistical inference, and introduced several new methods of breaking ciphers, notably frequency analysis. He was able to create a scale that would enable doctors to gauge the effectiveness of their medication by combining his knowledge of mathematics and medicine. The central theme underpinning al-Kindi's philosophical writings is the compatibility between philosophy and other "orthodox" Islamic sciences, particularly theology, and many of his works deal with subjects in which theologians had an immediate interest. These include the nature of God, the soul, and prophetic knowledge.

MORE →
TOPIC OF THE DAY

Greenwood / Black Wall Street

Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.

MORE →
TRIVIA QUESTION OF THE DAY

Who became the first Black woman to travel into space?

Mae Jemison, aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1992.