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Wilmington, North Carolina once had a thriving Black middle class and an elected interracial government. In 1898 white supremacists used violence to overthrow that government, kill Black residents and drive many others from the city.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
| Banisteriopsis caapi | |
|---|---|
| |
| Young B. caapi | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Malpighiales |
| Family: | Malpighiaceae |
| Genus: | Banisteriopsis |
| Species: | B. caapi
|
| Binomial name | |
| Banisteriopsis caapi | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
|
List
| |
Banisteriopsis caapi, also known as caapi, soul vine, yagé (yage), or ayahuasca (the latter of which also refers to the psychedelic decoction made with the vine and a plant source of dimethyltryptamine), is a South American liana of the family Malpighiaceae. It is commonly used as an ingredient of ayahuasca, a decoction with a long history of its entheogenic use and holds status as a "plant teacher" among the Indigenous peoples of the Amazon rainforest.
It was used by Indigenous peoples of South America for centuries, but it was first documented by Europeans in the 16th century and formally identified by botanist Richard Spruce in 1851. According to The CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names by Umberto Quattrocchi, the naming of the genus Banisteriopsis was dedicated to John Banister, a 17th-century English clergyman and naturalist. An earlier name for the genus was Banisteria, and the plant is sometimes referred to as Banisteria caapi. Its other names include Banisteria quitensis, Banisteriopsis inebrians, and Banisteriopsis quitensis.[3]
It is a giant vine that can grow up to 30 m (35 ft) long, with pale flowers that bloom infrequently and resemble related species like Banisteriopsis membranifolia and B. muricata. It contains beta-carboline alkaloids and polyphenols.
Its legal status varies by country; it is largely unregulated in the United States (with specific religious exemptions for use of the ayahuasca decoction), ambiguously legal in Canada and parts of Australia, and effectively illegal in France, despite past religious use rulings.
Caapi is a giant vine with characteristic 12–14 mm (0.5–0.6 in) white or pale pink flowers, which most commonly appear in January, but are known to bloom infrequently. It resembles B. membranifolia and B. muricata, both of which are related to caapi.[3]
The vine can grow up to 30 m (98 ft) in length, twining on other plants for support.[4][unreliable source?]
Caapi contains these harmala alkaloids:
These alkaloids of the beta-carboline class act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors.[6] The MAOIs allow the primary psychoactive compound, DMT, which is introduced from the other common ingredient in ayahuasca Psychotria viridis, to be orally active. The constituents that may be responsible for the hallucinogenic activity of B. caapi include harmaline, tetrahydroharmine, and to a lesser extent, harmine.[5] The stems contain 0.11–0.83% beta-carbolines, with harmine and tetrahydroharmine as the major components.[5] Alkaloids are present in all parts of the plant.[3]
In addition to beta-carbolines, caapi is known to contain proanthocyanidins, epicatechin, and procyanidin B2.[7]
The first mentions of caapi come from early Spanish and Portuguese explorers and missionaries who visited South America in the 16th century, describing ayahuasca brews as "diabolic" and dangerous decoctions.[8]
Although used among the indigenous tribes of South America for hundreds and perhaps even thousands of years, caapi was not identified by westerners until 1851, when Richard Spruce, an English botanist, described it as a new species. He observed how Guahibos, the indigenous people of Llanos (Venezuela), chewed the bark of caapi instead of brewing it as a drink.[9]
In the United States, caapi is not specifically regulated. A 2006 Supreme Court decision involving caapi-containing ayahuasca, which also contains other plants containing the controlled substance DMT, introduced from the Psychotria viridis component, Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, was found in favor of the União do Vegetal, a Brazilian religious sect using the tea in their ceremonies and having around 130 members in the United States.
In Australia, the harmala alkaloids are scheduled substances, including harmine and harmaline; however, the living vine, or other source plants are not scheduled in most states. In the State of Queensland as of March 2008,[10] this distinction is now uncertain. In all states, the dried herb may or may not be considered a scheduled substance, dependent on court rulings.
In Canada, harmala is listed under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act as a schedule III substance. The vine and the ayahuasca brew are legal ambiguities, since nowhere in the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act is it stated that natural material containing a scheduled substance is illegal, a position supported by the United Nations International Narcotics Control Board.[11]
Caapi, as well as a range of harmala alkaloids, is scheduled in France following a court victory by the Santo Daime religious sect allowing use of the tea due to it not being a chemical extraction and the fact that the plants used were not scheduled.[citation needed] Religious exceptions to narcotics laws are not allowed under French law, effectively making any use or possession of the tea illegal.[contradictory]
The caapi vine itself was the subject of a dispute between U.S. entrepreneur Loren Miller and the Coordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Basin (COICA). In 1986, Miller obtained a U.S. patent on a variety of B. caapi.[12] COICA argued the patent was invalid because Miller's variety had been previously described in the University of Michigan Herbarium and was therefore neither new nor distinct.[13] The patent was overturned in 1999; however, in 2001, the United States Patent Office reinstated the patent because the law at the time the patent was granted did not allow a third party such as COICA standing to object. The Miller patent expired in 2003. B. caapi is now being cultivated commercially in Hawaii.[citation needed]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
Banisteriopsis caapi, also known as caapi, soul vine, yagé (yage), or ayahuasca (the latter of which also refers to the psychedelic decoction made with the vine and a plant source of dimethyltryptamine), is a South American liana of the family Malpighiaceae. It is commonly used as an ingredient of ayahuasca, a decoction with a long history of its entheogenic use and holds status as a "plant teacher" among the Indigenous peoples of the Amazon rainforest. It was used by Indigenous peoples of South America for centuries, but it was first documented by Europeans in the 16th century and formally identified by botanist Richard Spruce in 1851. According to The CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names by Umberto Quattrocchi, the naming of the genus Banisteriopsis was dedicated to John Banister, a 17th-century English clergyman and naturalist. An earlier name for the genus was Banisteria, and the plant is sometimes referred to as Banisteria caapi. Its other names include Banisteria quitensis, Banisteriopsis inebrians, and Banisteriopsis quitensis. It is a giant vine that can grow up to 30 m (35 ft) long, with pale flowers that bloom infrequently and resemble related species like Banisteriopsis membranifolia and B. muricata. It contains beta-carboline alkaloids and polyphenols. Its legal status varies by country; it is largely unregulated in the United States (with specific religious exemptions for use of the ayahuasca decoction), ambiguously legal in Canada and parts of Australia, and effectively illegal in France, despite past religious use rulings.
Banisteriopsis is a genus of flowering plants in the family Malpighiaceae. There are about 65 species which range from northeastern Mexico and Cuba through Central and South America to northern Argentina. Most are native to Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. One well-known species is Banisteriopsis caapi, the source of ayahuasca.
Ayahuasca is a South American psychoactive decoction prepared from Banisteriopsis caapi vine and a dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing plant, used by Indigenous cultures in the Amazon and Orinoco basins as part of traditional medicine and shamanism. The word ayahuasca, originating from Quechuan languages spoken in the Andes, refers both to the B. caapi vine and the psychoactive brew made from it, with its name meaning 'spirit rope' or 'liana of the soul'. Although often portrayed as ancient, ayahuasca likely spread across the western Amazon only within the past few centuries; the first clear written accounts appear in the 17th century. The specific ritual use of ayahuasca was widespread among Indigenous groups by the 19th century. Ayahuasca is traditionally prepared by macerating and boiling B. caapi with other plants like Psychotria viridis during a ritualistic, multi-day process. Ayahuasca has been used in diverse South American cultures for spiritual, social, and medicinal purposes, often guided by shamans in ceremonial contexts involving specific dietary and ritual practices, with the Shipibo-Konibo people playing a significant historical and cultural role in its use. Originally confined to regions of Peru, Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador, ayahuasca became widespread in Brazil, expanding widely by the mid-20th century through syncretic religions in Brazil. In the late 20th century, ayahuasca use expanded beyond South America to Europe, North America, and elsewhere, leading to legal cases, non-religious adaptations, and the development of ayahuasca analogues (i.e., variants) using local or synthetic ingredients. While DMT is internationally classified as a controlled substance, the plants containing it—including those used to make ayahuasca—are not regulated under international law, leading to varied national policies that range from permitting religious use to imposing bans or decriminalization. The United States patent office controversially granted, challenged, revoked, reinstated, and ultimately allowed to expire a patent on the ayahuasca vine, sparking disputes over intellectual property rights and the cultural and religious significance of traditional Indigenous knowledge. Ayahuasca produces intense psychological and spiritual experiences. Ayahuasca's psychoactive effects primarily result from DMT, rendered orally active by harmala alkaloids in B. caapi, which act as reversible inhibitors of monamine oxidase; B. caapi and its β-carbolines also exhibit independent contributions to ayahuasca's effects, acting on serotonin and benzodiazepine receptors. Higher doses of ayahuasca or harmala alkaloids may increase risks.
Harmala alkaloids are several alkaloids that act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). These alkaloids are found in the seeds of Peganum harmala (also known as harmal or Syrian rue), as well as Banisteriopsis caapi (ayahuasca), leaves of tobacco and coffee beans. The alkaloids include harmine, harmaline, harmalol, and their derivatives, which have similar chemical structures, hence the name "harmala alkaloids". These alkaloids are of interest for their use in Amazonian shamanism, where they are derived from other plants. Harmine, once known as telepathine and banisterine, is a naturally occurring β-carboline alkaloid that is structurally related to harmaline, and also found in the vine Banisteriopsis caapi. Tetrahydroharmine is also found in B. caapi and P. harmala. Dr. Alexander Shulgin has suggested that harmine may be a breakdown product of harmaline. Harmine and harmaline are reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (RIMAs). They can stimulate the central nervous system by inhibiting the metabolism of monoamine compounds such as serotonin and norepinephrine in the case of MAO-As and dopamine in the case of MAO-Bs. The harmala alkaloids occur in Peganum harmala in concentrations of roughly 3%, though tests have documented anywhere from 2–7% or even higher, as natural sources tend to vary widely in chemical makeup. Harmala alkaloids are also found in the Banisteriopsis caapi vine, the key plant ingredient in the sacramental beverage ayahuasca, in concentrations that range between 0.31 and 8.43% for harmine, 0.03–0.83% for harmaline and 0.05–2.94% for tetrahydroharmine. Although other psychoactive plants are occasionally added to ayahuasca to achieve visionary states of consciousness, the recipes vary greatly and no single combination is common. Peganum harmala, normally consumed as a tea or used as an incense, is mentioned in classical Persian literature both as a sacred sacrament and as a medicine. The harmala alkaloids are not especially psychedelic, even at higher dosages, when hypnagogic visions, alongside vomiting and diarrhea, become the main effect. Harmala alkaloids are also found in many other plants, such as Passiflora. The leaves of P. incarnata have been reported variously to give 0.005%, 0.12%, and 0% harmala alkaloids.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Madam C.J. Walker
