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Katherine Johnson’s mathematical calculations helped guide some of America’s most important early space missions while she confronted the racial and gender barriers faced by Black women in twentieth-century America.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
| Clupeidae Temporal range:
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|---|---|
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| Atlantic herring, Clupea harengus | |
Scientific classification 
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| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Actinopterygii |
| Division: | Teleostei |
| Order: | Clupeiformes |
| Suborder: | Clupeoidei |
| Family: | Clupeidae G. Cuvier, 1817[1] |
| Genera | |
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Otto Gottlieb Leonhard Girgensohn|Girgensohn]], 1846 | |
| Synonyms | |
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Clupeidae is a small family of clupeiform ray-finned fishes, comprising the true herrings and sprats, inhabiting temperate marine habitats in both hemispheres. Members of the family have a body protected with shiny cycloid (very smooth and uniform) scales, a single dorsal fin, and a fusiform body for quick, evasive swimming and pursuit of prey composed of small planktonic animals. Due to their small size and position in the lower trophic level of many marine food webs, the levels of methylmercury they bioaccumulate are very low, reducing the risk of mercury poisoning when consumed.
The following genera are classified within the family:[2]
Until the 2020s, Clupeidae was treated as a wastebasket taxon containing almost all clupeoid fish with a generalized body plan. They were often divided into two subfamilies: the Clupeinae, containing primarily temperate taxa, and the Pellonulinae, containing primarily tropical taxa.[3] Following molecular phylogenetic studies on the family, more subfamilies were erected within the Clupeidae[4][5], and in 2022, the entire group was split into multiple families, including the Dorosomatidae and Alosidae.[6] Following a comprehensive study incorporating fossil taxa, many more of the remaining genera in Clupeidae were also split from the family (such as the family Hyperlophidae), until only two genera remained.[7]
Many fossil genera were also previously classified in Clupeidae when it was a wastebasket taxon. However, the taxonomy of many of these is now uncertain, and they are better treated as indeterminate Clupeoidei.[8] Fossil Clupea species are known from the Middle Miocene.[9]
Clupeids are mostly marine forage fish. The lateral line is short or absent, and the teeth are unusually small where they are present at all. Clupeids typically feed on plankton, and range from 2 to 75 cm (0.79 to 29.53 in) in length.[10]
Clupeids spawn huge numbers of eggs (up to 200,000 in some species) near the surface of the water. After hatching, the larvae live among the plankton until they develop a swim bladder and transform into adults. These eggs and fry are not protected or tended to by parents. The adults typically live in large shoals, seeking protection from piscivorous predators such as birds, sharks and other predatory fish, toothed whales, marine mammals, and jellyfish. They also form bait balls.[11][10]
Commercially important species of the Clupeidae include the Atlantic and Baltic herrings (Clupea harengus), and the Pacific herring (C. pallasii).
The Clupeidae family primarily feed on small planktonic organisms. The teeth of members of this family are either reduced or absent, reduced teeth are miniature teeth that would be barely visible and line the interior of the fish's mouth. The structure of these teeth indicate that these organisms do not need to cut or tear their prey items as they would need fully formed teeth to complete this process. They do, however, possess long gill rakers that are designed for sifting plankton and other small particles out of the water as it passes through their gills.[citation needed] Gill rakers are protrusions along the gill arch, opposing the gill filaments, that help aquatic organisms to trap food particles.
The diet of many clupeids primarily consists of phytoplankton and plant matter during their larval stages. As the fish mature this diet begins to shift towards larger and more substantive organisms, including more zooplankton and copepods. This change in diet is possible due to their increase in body and gill raker size, which allows them to capture and process larger organisms to support themselves. Small organisms like these do not need to be ground or torn apart for consumption so pronounced teeth would not serve a purpose in the feeding habits of Clupeidae, instead the use of filter feeding allows for much more efficient nutrient collection.
The fusiform body shape of Clupeidae is also advantageous to their trophic ecology. The tapering body form is a highly hydrodynamic form that allows for quick increases in speed and a high maximum speed. Moving at high speeds allows the members of this family to regulate their feeding habits and avoid predators. Clupeidae can moderate the speed at which they swim to increase their uptake of nutrients. As with all filter feeders, Clupeidae cannot take in food if nutrient rich water does not pass over their gills. To moderate this, members of this family have been found to increase their swimming speed when they sense that there is a high concentration of food items in order to take advantage of this feeding period.[12] Keeping a high swimming speed during periods of low food availability would not be efficient to maintain over long periods of time as the organisms would not net as much energy as they may need to in order to sustain themselves and increase their fitness. Increasing their swimming speed during feeding periods would allow them to take in more plankton while not suffering consequences from maintaining that speed.
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Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
Clupeidae is a small family of clupeiform ray-finned fishes, comprising the true herrings and sprats, inhabiting temperate marine habitats in both hemispheres. Members of the family have a body protected with shiny cycloid (very smooth and uniform) scales, a single dorsal fin, and a fusiform body for quick, evasive swimming and pursuit of prey composed of small planktonic animals. Due to their small size and position in the lower trophic level of many marine food webs, the levels of methylmercury they bioaccumulate are very low, reducing the risk of mercury poisoning when consumed.
Clupeiformes is the order of ray-finned fish that includes the herring family, Clupeidae, and the anchovy family, Engraulidae and sardines. The group includes many of the most important forage and food fish. Clupeiformes are physostomes, which means that their gas bladder has a pneumatic duct connecting it to the gut. They typically lack a lateral line, but still have the eyes, fins and scales that are common to most fish, though not all fish have these attributes. They are generally silvery fish with streamlined, spindle-shaped bodies, and they often school. Most species eat plankton which they filter from the water with their gill rakers. The former order of Isospondyli was subsumed mostly by Clupeiformes, but some isospondylous fishes (isospondyls) were assigned to Osteoglossiformes, Salmoniformes, Cetomimiformes, etc. Their sister group were the extinct Ellimmichthyiformes, which were dominant throughout much of the Cretaceous and into the Paleogene, and often coexisted with clupeiforms at many known localities. Both groups closely resembled each other morphologically, although the ellimmichthyiformes evolved some highly divergent body plans later in the Cretaceous. Several fossil clupeiforms are known from the Early Cretaceous of South America that appear to be more closely allied with Clupeioidei over the Denticipitidae. This suggests a very deep divergence within the crown group Clupeiformes that must have occurred during the Early Cretaceous or before.
Herring are various species of forage fish, belonging to the order Clupeiformes. Herring often move in large schools around fishing banks and near the coast, found particularly in shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans, including the Baltic Sea, as well as off the west coast of South America. Three species of Clupea (the type genus of the herring family Clupeidae) are recognised, and comprise about 90% of all herrings captured in fisheries. The most abundant of these species is the Atlantic herring, which comprises over half of all herring capture. Fish called herring are also found in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and Bay of Bengal. Herring played an important role in the history of marine fisheries in Europe, and early in the 20th century, their study was fundamental to the development of fisheries science. These oily fish also have a long history as an important food fish, and are often salted, smoked, or pickled. Herring were also known as "silver darlings" in the United Kingdom.
Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) is a herring in the family Clupeidae. It is one of the most abundant fish species in the world. Atlantic herrings can be found on both sides of the northern Atlantic Ocean, congregating in large schools. They can grow up to 45 centimetres (18 in) in length and weigh up to 1.1 kilograms (2.4 lb). They feed on copepods, krill and small fish, while their natural predators are seals, whales, cod and other larger fish. The Atlantic herring fishery has long been an important part of the economy of New England and the Atlantic provinces of Canada. This is because the fish congregate relatively near to the coast in massive schools, notably in the cold waters of the semi-enclosed Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence. North Atlantic herring schools have been measured up to 4 cubic kilometres (0.96 cu mi) in size, containing an estimated four billion fish.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Madam C.J. Walker
