Civil Rights
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
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Explore the people, places, events, achievements, struggles and stories that shaped our journey.
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
Innovation, patents, science, technology and world-changing contributions.
Pioneers, champions, Negro Leagues, records, activism and excellence.
Meet the people whose lives, choices and achievements shaped the journey.
Black towns, communities, institutions and places where history happened.
Moments that changed communities, movements, institutions and the nation.
Mansa Musa was the ruler of the Mali Empire in West Africa. Details recorded here should be sourced; unknown information is left blank.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
In computing, a command is a high-level instruction received via an external interface that directs the behavior of a computer program. Commonly, commands are sent to a program via a command-line interface, a script, a network protocol, or as an event triggered in a graphical user interface.[1]
Many commands support arguments to specify input and to modify default behavior. Terminology and syntax varies but there are notable common approaches. Typically, an option or a flag is a name (without whitespace) with a prefix such as dash or a slash that modifies default behavior. An option might have a required value that follows it. Typically, a flag refers to an option that does not have a following value. A parameter is an argument that specifies input to the command and its meaning is based on its position in the command line relative to other parameters; generally ignoring options. A parameter can specify anything, but often it specifies a file by name or path.[2]
The term command is sometimes also used for internal program instructions, but often other terms are more appropriate such as statement, expression, function, or conditional.[3][4] For example, printing a message in Bash is via the command printf, while in Python it is via the function print().[5] Further, some aspects of adjacent technology are conflated with commands. For example, conditional logic in Bash and Python is called an expression[6][7] and statements in Java.[8][9]
A notable context in which commands are prevalent is the operating system shell. Commonly, the shell dispatches a command to a program that has a file name matching the first parameter. In a Unix shell (such as bash and many related variants), the match must be exact including case.[10] The following bash command changes the working directory to /home/pete by invoking the program cd:
cd /home/pete
The following bash command writes "Hello World" via program echo to standard output – typically the terminal. Quotes around the two words indicate that the phrase is treated as a single parameter.
echo "Hello World"
The following demonstrates how the default behavior of a command is modified with a switch. The switch -e causes the command to treat characters prefixed with a backslash as the associated control character. In this case \t results in a tab character.
echo -e "Hello\tWorld"
In shells such as command prompt, DOS, and OS/2 some commands are built-in: not implemented as a separate program.[11] But, if a command is not built-in, then the shell dispatches to a program that has an executable extension (such as .exe) and base name matching the first parameter ignoring case. The following command prompt command displays the content of file readme.txt via the built-in command type.[12]
type readme.txt
The following command prompt command lists the contents of the current directory via built-in command dir. The switch /Q modifies default behavior to include owner information.[13]
dir /Q
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Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
In computing, a command is a high-level instruction received via an external interface that directs the behavior of a computer program. Commonly, commands are sent to a program via a command-line interface, a script, a network protocol, or as an event triggered in a graphical user interface. Many commands support arguments to specify input and to modify default behavior. Terminology and syntax varies but there are notable common approaches. Typically, an option or a flag is a name (without whitespace) with a prefix such as dash or a slash that modifies default behavior. An option might have a required value that follows it. Typically, a flag refers to an option that does not have a following value. A parameter is an argument that specifies input to the command and its meaning is based on its position in the command line relative to other parameters; generally ignoring options. A parameter can specify anything, but often it specifies a file by name or path. The term command is sometimes also used for internal program instructions, but often other terms are more appropriate such as statement, expression, function, or conditional. For example, printing a message in Bash is via the command printf, while in Python it is via the function print(). Further, some aspects of adjacent technology are conflated with commands. For example, conditional logic in Bash and Python is called an expression and statements in Java.
In the X Window System, the X resources are parameters of computer programs such as the name of the font used in the buttons, the background color of menus, etc. They are used in conjunction with or as an alternative to command line parameters and configuration files.
Windows Desktop Update was an optional feature by Microsoft that was included with Internet Explorer 4 (IE4, released in September 1997), which introduced several updated shell features to the Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0 operating systems. These features later became part of the standard installation in their successors, which were Windows 98 and Windows 2000, respectively. The Windows Desktop Update included features such as Active Desktop and tight IE4 integration with the Windows Explorer. It was downloadable as part of IE4 for all versions of Windows 95 except for Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2.5 (4.00.950C), which included a standalone version of IE 4.0 plus the Windows Desktop Update (but not slipstreamed) where it was automatically installed after the standard Windows 95 set-up. Similarly, the shell update was also made available as part of IE 4.0 for Windows NT 4.0 (with Service Pack 3 or later). While the Windows Desktop Update was officially only an optional user component under Internet Explorer 4.0 releases and was not formally included in later versions of Internet Explorer, users can extract the Windows Desktop Update installer from the IE4 setup files using standard .CAB extraction tools or use IEAK to generate a version of the IE 5.0x, 5.5 or 6.0 setup which included the update. Also, command line parameters or edits to a temporary configuration file can be used to instruct installer of those versions of IE to install the Desktop Update. For example, in the case of IE 5.0x and 5.5, the IE5 setup will install some new shell features if the Windows Desktop Update is installed, such as sorting by name in a context menu and drop down/overflow menu buttons whenever menus or toolbar buttons did not fit in the Explorer window on the screen.
The program ttcp (Test TCP) is a utility for measuring network throughput, popular on Unix systems. It measures the network throughput between two systems using the TCP or optionally UDP protocols. It was written by Mike Muuss and Terry Slattery at BRL sometime before December 1984, to compare the performance of TCP stacks by the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) of the University of California, Berkeley and Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) to help DARPA decide which version to place in 4.3BSD. Many compatible implementations and derivatives exist including the widely used Iperf. Testing can be done from any platform to any other platform, for example from a Windows machine to a Linux machine, as long as they both have a ttcp application installed. For normal use, ttcp is installed on two machines – one will be the sender, the other the receiver. The receiver is started first and waits for a connection. Once the two connect, the sending machine sends data to the receiver and displays the overall throughput of the network they traverse. The amount of data sent and other options are configurable through command line parameters. The statistics output covers TCP/UDP payload only (not protocol overhead) and is generally displayed by default in KiB/s (kibiBytes per second) instead of kb/s (kilobits per second), but it can be configured to be displayed in other ways on some implementations. The reported throughput is more accurately calculated on the receive side than the transmit side, since the transmit operation may complete before all bytes actually have been transmitted.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Madam C.J. Walker
