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Katherine Johnson’s mathematical calculations helped guide some of America’s most important early space missions while she confronted the racial and gender barriers faced by Black women in twentieth-century America.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
 | This article may contain excessive or inappropriate references to self-published sources. (April 2024) |
| web2py Enterprise Web Framework | |
|---|---|
 web2py logo | |
| Original author | Massimo Di Pierro |
| Release | September 27, 2007 |
| Stable release | 3.1.1[1] 
/ 19 December 2025 |
| Written in | Python |
| Platform | Cross-platform |
| Type | Web application framework |
| License | GNU Lesser General Public License version 3 (LGPLv3) |
| Website | www.web2py.com |
| Repository | Web2py Repository |
Web2py is an open-source web application framework written in the Python programming language. Web2py allows web developers to program dynamic web content using Python. Web2py is designed to help reduce tedious web development tasks, such as developing web forms from scratch, although a web developer may build a form from scratch if required.[2]
Web2py was originally designed as a teaching tool with emphasis on ease of use and deployment. Therefore, it does not have any project-level configuration files. The design of web2py was inspired by the Ruby on Rails and Django frameworks. Like these frameworks, web2py focuses on rapid development, favors convention over configuration approach and follows a model–view–controller (MVC) architectural pattern.
Web2py is a full-stack framework in that it has built-in components for all major functions, including:
Web2py encourages sound software engineering practices such as
Web2py uses the WSGI protocol, the Python-oriented protocol for communication between web server and web applications. It also provides handlers for CGI and the FastCGI protocols, and it includes the multi-threaded, SSL-enabled Rocket[6] wsgiserver.
All development, debugging, testing, maintenance and remote database administration can (optionally) be performed without third-party tools, via a web interface, itself a web2py application. Internationalization (adding languages and writing translations) can also be performed from this IDE. Each application has an automatically generated database administrative interface, similar to Django. The web IDE also includes web-based testing.
Applications can also be created from the command line or developed with other IDEs. Further debugging options:[7]
The Hello World program with web2py in its simplest form (simple web page[13] with no template) looks like:
def hello():
return 'Hello World'
Web2py includes pure Python-based template language, with no indentation requirements and a server-side Document Object Model (DOM). The template system works without web2py.[14] Joomla 1.x templates can be converted to web2py layouts.[15]
Web2py also includes two markup libraries: the markdown2 text-to-HTML filter, which converts Markdown markup to HTML on the fly; and markmin which is inspired by markdown but supports tables, html5 video/audio and oembed protocol.
A controller without a view automatically uses a generic view that render the variables returned by the controller, enabling the development of an application's business logic before writing HTML. The "Hello World" example using a default template:
def hello():
return dict(greeting='Hello World')
The dict() output of an action is automatically rendered in HTML if the page is request with a .html extension, in JSON if the page is requested with a .json extension, in XML if requested with .xml. It supports other protocols including jsonp, rss, ics, google maps, etc. and is extensible.
Here is a more complex code example which defines a table, and exposes a grid to logged in users:
db.define_table('thing',Field('name',notnull=True))
@auth.requires_login()
def hello():
return dict(grid = SQLFORM.grid(db.thing))
Each web2py application comes with a ticketing system:
Cron is a mechanism for creating and running recurrent tasks in background. It looks for an application-specific crontab file which is in standard crontab format. Three modes of operation are available:
Since version 2.3 the use of cron is discouraged since web2py comes with a master/worker scheduler. Jobs can be defined in models and are scheduled by creating an entry in the database. Users can start work processes who pickup and execute tasks in background. The schedule is better than cron because it allows to specify more parameters (start time, stop time, number of repetitions, number of trials in case of error) and do a better job at running within constant resource utilization.
Web2py can compile web applications for distribution in bytecode compiled form, without source code. Unlike frameworks that use specialized template languages for their views, Web2py can also compile the view code into bytecode, since it is pure Python code.
 | This article needs more citations. (November 2013) |
Web2py is unique in the world of Python web frameworks because models and controllers are executed, not imported. They are not modules. They are executed in a single global environment which is initialized at each HTTP request. This design decision has pros and cons.
The major pro is the ease of development, specifically for rapid prototyping. Another pro is that all the objects defined within this environment are cleanly reset at each HTTP request and never shared across requests. This means the developer does not need to worry about changing the state of an object (for example the readable attribute of a database field) or worry about a change leaking to other concurrent requests or other applications. A third advantage is that web2py allows the coexistence of multiple applications under the same instance without conflicts even if they use different versions of the same modules or different modules with the same name.
The main disadvantage of the global environment is that model files and controller files are not modules and the order of execution matters (although it can be specified using conditional models). Naming conflict is more likely to occur than in normal Python modules. Some standard Python development tools may not understand objects defined in models and controllers. Moreover, developers must be aware that code in models is executed at every request and this may cause a performance penalty. Nothing in web2py prevents developers from using and importing normal Python modules (model-less approach) and for this purpose web2py provides a thread local object (current) to facilitate access to objects associated to the current request. Yet, in this case, the developer has to be aware of the same pitfalls that other frameworks incur: changing the state of an object defined in a module may affect other concurrent requests.
Another con is that, because models and controllers are not class-based, efficient code reuse becomes more difficult, particularly as the inability to inherit from a parent controller (e.g. the ApplicationController in Ruby on Rails) means that common controller functionality must be referenced repeatedly across all controller files.
web2py runs on Windows, Windows CE phones, Mac, Unix/Linux, Google App Engine, Amazon EC2, and almost any web hosting via Python 2.7/3.5/3.6/pypy.[2]
The current binary version of web2py (for Windows or Mac) includes Python 2.7, but the source version can be run on 2.7 and 3.5+. Support for Python 2.6 has been dropped on 2017.
web2py since v1.64.0 runs unmodified on Java with Jython 2.5, without any known limitation.[16]
web2py code can run with IronPython on .NET.[17] Limitations:
The web2py binary will[18] run from a USB drive or a portable hard drive without dependencies, like Portable Python.
Web2py can service requests via HTTP and HTTPS with its built-in Rocket server,[19] with Apache,[20] lighttpd,[21] Cherokee,[22] Hiawatha, Nginx and almost any other web server through CGI, FastCGI, WSGI, mod_proxy,[23][24][25] and/or mod_python.
While a number of web2py developers use text editors such as Vim, Emacs or TextMate Web2py also has a built-in web-based IDE. Others prefer more specialized tools providing debugging, refactoring, etc.
The database abstraction layer (DAL) of web2py dynamically and transparently generates SQL queries and runs on multiple compatible database backend without the need for database-specific SQL commands (though SQL commands can be issued explicitly).
SQLite is included in Python and is the default web2py database. A connection string change allows connection to Firebird, IBM Db2, Informix, Ingres, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, Oracle, PostgreSQL, and Google App Engine (GAE) with some caveats. Specialities:
The DAL is fast, at least comparable with SQLAlchemy and Storm.[30]
Web2py implements a DAL, not an ORM. An ORM maps database tables into classes representing logical abstractions from the database layer (e.g., a User class or a PurchaseOrder class), and maps records into instances of those classes. The DAL instead maps database tables and records into instances of classes representing sets and records instead of higher-level abstractions. It has very similar syntax to an ORM but it is faster, and can map almost any SQL expressions into DAL expressions. The DAL can be used independently of the rest of web2py.[31]
Here are some examples of DAL syntax:
db = DAL("postgresql://user:pass@localhost/db", pool_size=10)
db.define_table("person", Field("name"), Field("image", "upload"))
db.person.insert(name="Martin", image=open("filename.png"))
rows = db((db.person.name == "Martin") | db.person.name.contains("T")).select(
orderby=db.person.name.lower()
)
The latest version of the DAL has support for 2D GIS functions with Spatialite and PostGIS. The current API are experimental because of a possible move to 3D APIs.
web2py supports database migrations—change the definition of a table and web2py ALTERs the table accordingly. Migrations are automatic, but can be disabled for any table, and migration is typically disabled when an application is ready for live distribution. Migrations and migration attempts are logged, documenting the changes.
Limitations:
Web2py code is released under GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 3 as of web2py version 1.91.1.[32]
Web2py code before version 1.91.1 was released under GNU GPL v2.0 with commercial exception.
Various third-party packages distributed with web2py have their own licenses, generally public domain, MIT or BSD-type licenses. Applications built with web2py are not covered by the LGPL license.
Web2py is copyrighted by Massimo DiPierro. The web2py trademark is owned by Massimo DiPierro.
In 2011 InfoWorld ranked web2py highest among the top six Python web frameworks, awarded web2py the Bossie award 2011 for best open source application development software. In 2012 web2py won the InfoWorld Technology of the Year award.[33][34]
The base web2py documentation is The Official web2py Book, by Massimo DiPierro. The manual is a full web2py application and it's freely available online,[35] in PDF format or printed form.
Online documentation is linked from the web2py home page, with cookbook, videos, interactive examples, interactive API reference, epydoc s (complete library reference), FAQ, cheat sheet, online tools etc.
The lead developer of web2py is Massimo DiPierro, an associate professor of Computer Science at DePaul University in Chicago. As of 2011, the web2py homepage lists over 70 "main contributors".[37]
The web2py development source code is available from the main repository:
The source code for the first public version of web2py was released under GNU GPL v2.0 on 2007-09-27 by Massimo DiPierro as the Enterprise Web Framework (EWF). The name was changed twice due to name conflicts: EWF v1.7 was followed by Gluon v1.0, and Gluon v1.15 was followed by web2py v1.16. The license was changed to LGPLv3 as of web2py version 1.91.1 on 2010-12-21.
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
Internet Explorer (formerly Microsoft Internet Explorer and Windows Internet Explorer, commonly abbreviated as IE or MSIE) is a retired series of graphical web browsers developed by Microsoft that were used in the Windows line of operating systems. While IE has been discontinued on most Windows editions, it remains supported on certain editions of Windows, such as Windows 10 LTSB/LTSC. Starting in 1995, it was first released as part of the add-on package Plus! for Windows 95 that year. Later versions were available as free downloads or in-service packs and included in the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) service releases of Windows 95 and later versions of Windows. Microsoft spent over US$100 million per year on Internet Explorer in the late 1990s, with over 1,000 people involved in the project by 1999. In 2015, Microsoft Edge was released to succeed Internet Explorer 11 as Microsoft's primary web browser. New feature development for Internet Explorer was discontinued the following year, and support for the browser officially ended on June 15, 2022, for Windows 10 Semi-Annual Channel (SAC) editions. Although Internet Explorer has fallen out of general use after retirement, it was once the most widely used web browser, attaining a peak of 95% usage share by 2003. This came after Microsoft used bundling to win the first browser war against Netscape, which was the dominant browser in the 1990s. Its usage share declined with the launches of Firefox (2004) and Google Chrome (2008) and with the growing popularity of mobile operating systems such as Android and iOS that do not support Internet Explorer. Microsoft Edge, IE's successor, first overtook Internet Explorer in terms of market share in November 2019. Versions of Internet Explorer for other operating systems were also produced, including an Xbox 360 version called Internet Explorer for Xbox and for platforms Microsoft no longer supports: Internet Explorer for Mac and Internet Explorer for UNIX (Solaris and HP-UX), and an embedded OEM version called Pocket Internet Explorer, later rebranded Internet Explorer Mobile, made for Windows CE, Windows Phone, and, previously, based on Internet Explorer 7, for Windows Phone 7. The browser was scrutinized throughout its development for its use of third-party technology (such as the source code of Spyglass Mosaic, used without royalty in early versions) and security and privacy vulnerabilities, and the United States and the European Union have determined that the integration of Internet Explorer with Windows has been to the detriment of fair browser competition. The core of Internet Explorer 11 will continue being shipped and supported until at least 2029 as IE Mode, a feature of Microsoft Edge, enabling Edge to display web pages using Internet Explorer 11's Trident layout engine and other components. Through IE Mode, the underlying technology of Internet Explorer 11 partially exists on versions of Windows that do not support IE11 as a proper application, including newer versions of Windows 10, as well as Windows 11, Windows Server 2022 and Windows Server 2025.
Web2py is an open-source web application framework written in the Python programming language. Web2py allows web developers to program dynamic web content using Python. Web2py is designed to help reduce tedious web development tasks, such as developing web forms from scratch, although a web developer may build a form from scratch if required. Web2py was originally designed as a teaching tool with emphasis on ease of use and deployment. Therefore, it does not have any project-level configuration files. The design of web2py was inspired by the Ruby on Rails and Django frameworks. Like these frameworks, web2py focuses on rapid development, favors convention over configuration approach and follows a model–view–controller (MVC) architectural pattern.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Madam C.J. Walker
