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Explore the people, places, events, achievements, struggles and stories that shaped our journey.
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
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Katherine Johnson’s mathematical calculations helped guide some of America’s most important early space missions while she confronted the racial and gender barriers faced by Black women in twentieth-century America.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
The International Noble Gas Experiment (INGE) was formed in 1999 as an informal expert's group of developers of radioactive xenon measurement systems for the International Monitoring System for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) (signed in 1997, but which has not entered into force). The group originally consisted of research and development groups from Germany, France, Russia, Sweden, and the United States, as well as personnel from Provisional Technical Secretariat of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization CTBTO.
The INGE group was formed to test aspects of measuring xenon fission product radionuclides released by nuclear explosions. The systems developed and participating in the INGE measure xenon isotopes in the atmosphere and includes 131mXe, 133Xe, 133mXe, and 135Xe.
Since the INGE was formed in 1999, the group has expanded somewhat and now includes R&D and operational groups from many locations around the world. Although there is no official list of INGE members, the group is informally composed of scientists, engineers, and others from Argentina, Austria, Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Russia, the United States, and several other countries. These members regularly contribute to better understanding radioactive xenon measurements through operation of samplers, measurements of background at various locations, creation of data analysis routines, etc.
Staff from the preparatory commission of the CTBTO oversaw the experiment, with technical assistance from a German group of noble gas experts from the BfS in Freiburg, Germany. As of 2009, the experiment was still on-going, and so far it had consisted of 3 phases:
The first phase of the INGE experiment took place in the laboratories. Four systems were developed to the point that they could measure xenon concentrations to specifications laid out by the CTBTO Preparatory Commission.
The second phase of the INGE experiment took place in Freiburg, Germany, a location far away from the developers laboratories.
| Country | Institute | Role | System Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Germany | (IAR) BfS | System Tester | N/A |
| France | CEA/DASE | System Developer | SPALAX |
| Russia | KRI | System Developer | ARIX |
| Sweden | FOA (FOI) [1] | System Developer | SAUNA [2] Archived 2008-06-03 at the Wayback Machine |
| United States | DOE/PNNL | System Developer | ARSA |
Phase 2: Use of Radioxenon Monitoring Equipment in Freiburg [1][2]
The four measurement systems tested in Phase 2 had favorable results in that all of the systems met CTBTO minimum specifications and agreed with the independent analyses provided by BfS.
Phase 3, which was separated into a, b, and c components was designed primarily to test commercial versions of the systems designed and tested in INGE Phase 2. The commercial version of the SAUNA (the SAUNA-II) is now being manufactured by Gammadata, Inc. and the SPALAX Archived 2015-02-13 at the Wayback Machine is being produced commercially by Environnement S.A, Radionuclides Division (formerly Societé Française d’Ingenierie: SFI).
One of the major aspects of the INGE that has been investigated is the variation of worldwide radioactive xenon backgrounds. Concentrations of the xenon isotopes are continuously measured throughout the INGE experiment, and it has been found so far that a major source of background is medical isotope production.
There has been a number of workshops to discuss various aspects of the experiment and to discuss worldwide backgrounds of radioxenon.
1999 - Freiburg, Germany
1999 - Freiburg, Germany
2000 - Freiburg, Germany
2000 - Freiburg, Germany
2001 - Stockholm, Sweden
2002 - Tahiti, French Polynesia
2002 - Richland, Washington, United States
2003 - Ottawa, Canada
2004 - Strassoldo, Italy
2005 - Stockholm, Sweden
2006 - Melbourne, Australia
2007 - Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
2008 - St. Petersburg, Russian Federation
2009 - Daejeon, South Korea
2010 - Buenos Aires, Argentina
2011 - Yogyakarta, Indonesia
2012 - Mito, Japan
2013 - Vienna, Austria
2015 - Austin, Texas, United States
2017 - London, United Kingdom
2019 - Freiburg, Germany
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
The International Noble Gas Experiment (INGE) was formed in 1999 as an informal expert's group of developers of radioactive xenon measurement systems for the International Monitoring System for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) (signed in 1997, but which has not entered into force). The group originally consisted of research and development groups from Germany, France, Russia, Sweden, and the United States, as well as personnel from Provisional Technical Secretariat of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization CTBTO. The INGE group was formed to test aspects of measuring xenon fission product radionuclides released by nuclear explosions. The systems developed and participating in the INGE measure xenon isotopes in the atmosphere and includes 131mXe, 133Xe, 133mXe, and 135Xe. Since the INGE was formed in 1999, the group has expanded somewhat and now includes R&D and operational groups from many locations around the world. Although there is no official list of INGE members, the group is informally composed of scientists, engineers, and others from Argentina, Austria, Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Russia, the United States, and several other countries. These members regularly contribute to better understanding radioactive xenon measurements through operation of samplers, measurements of background at various locations, creation of data analysis routines, etc. Staff from the preparatory commission of the CTBTO oversaw the experiment, with technical assistance from a German group of noble gas experts from the BfS in Freiburg, Germany. As of 2009, the experiment was still on-going, and so far it had consisted of 3 phases:
The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty to ban nuclear weapons test explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996, but has not entered into force, as it has not been ratified by all the required states. The treaty will establish the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization to oversee monitoring, which is currently done by a Preparatory Commission. Despite not being in force, the CTBT has established a global norm against nuclear testing, reinforced by nuclear testing moratoria declared by the five nuclear-weapon states recognized under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT): China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Since the treaty's opening for signature in 1996, only sixteen nuclear tests have been conducted, all by non-signatory states: Pokhran-II by India and Chagai-I by Pakistan in May 1998, and six tests by North Korea from 2006 to 2017. Over 2,000 nuclear tests were conducted between 1945 and 1996, primarily by the United States and the Soviet Union. The CTBT's International Monitoring System is a global nuclear detonation detection system. It is intended to comprise 321 monitoring stations and 16 laboratories across 89 countries, of which ~90% are already operational. The stations collect one of seismic, infrasonic, hydroacoustic, and radionuclide signatures of nuclear explosions. The IMS successfully characterized all six North Korean nuclear tests, and also collects large datasets valuable to scientists for astrophysics, biology, and geology and more. As of 2026, 188 states have signed and 179 states have ratified the treaty. The treaty designates an "Annex 2" list of states, which must all ratify the CTBT for it to enter into force. These states possessed any nuclear reactors at the time. Nine Annex 2 states have yet to ratify: the six signatories China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, Russia, and the United States, and the three non-signatories India, Pakistan, and North Korea. Israel is also widely believed to possess nuclear weapons, and the nuclear program of Iran is heavily scrutinized internationally. The CTBT was negotiated in 1995-96 in the Conference on Disarmament with a final phase of negotiations in the UN General Assembly. It built on two major previous treaties, the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the 1968 NPT, as well as the 1974 Threshold Test Ban Treaty between the US and Soviet Union limiting the yields of their underground tests to less than 150 kilotons of TNT. While the United States was the first nation to sign the CTBT, the United States Senate rejected ratification in 1999. In 2023, in the context of the Russo-Ukrainian war, Russia withdrew its ratification of the CTBT. Non-ratifying states typically explain their reasoning via the non-ratification of a rival, or other regional stability issues.
North Korea conducted its sixth (and most recent to date) nuclear test on 3 September 2017, claiming it had tested a thermonuclear weapon (hydrogen bomb). While unconfirmed, analysts agree the test was likely of a thermonuclear or boosted fission weapon. The test took place at a high point of the 2017–2018 North Korea crisis. The United States Geological Survey reported an earthquake of 6.3 magnitude not far from North Korea's Punggye-ri nuclear test site. South Korean authorities said the earthquake seemed to be artificial, consistent with an underground nuclear test. The USGS, as well as China Earthquake Networks Center, reported that the initial event was followed by a second, smaller, earthquake at the site, several minutes later, which was characterized as a collapse of the cavity formed by the initial detonation. While early intelligence and academic reports suggested yields between 100 and 160 kilotons of TNT, later yield estimates were between 250 and 400 kilotons. Via the International Monitoring System, it was the first underground test where infrasound signatures were recorded transiting the thermosphere. North Korea had previously claimed it tested a hydrogen bomb in January 2016, but this was widely discounted by experts. Analysts were more favorable to a true thermonuclear weapon explanation for the 2017 test, while yield estimates reach the upper limits of the largest pure fission or largest boosted fission weapons ever tested. The test was internationally condemned by countries throughout Asia, as well as the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. Japan and South Korea announced new missile defense measures, with South Korea seeking Terminal High Altitude Area Defense batteries from the United States. In November, the United States relisted North Korea as a State Sponsor of Terrorism. In April 2018, North Korea announced a unilateral nuclear and intercontinental ballistic missile testing moratorium. From 2021 the country extensively tested cruise missiles and short-range ballistic missiles, and in 2023 resumed ICBM tests, while as of 2026 this remains the most recent confirmed nuclear test in the world.
The Wildlife Enforcement Monitoring System (WEMS) is an environmental governance and information-sharing system designed to support the monitoring of wildlife crime, illegal wildlife trade, and enforcement of wildlife-related legislation. It uses geographic information system (GIS) technology together with spatial and non-spatial information to facilitate the collection, analysis, and sharing of information relevant to wildlife law enforcement and compliance with multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). WEMS was initially developed in the context of challenges associated with the flow of enforcement information between national institutions and international organisations involved in the implementation of MEAs, including the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The system was designed to provide an information technology framework through which information could move from local and national levels towards organisations involved in monitoring enforcement and compliance. The development of WEMS has involved researchers, government agencies, United Nations organisations, wildlife enforcement institutions, and other stakeholders. The initiative has subsequently been associated with research into transboundary information sharing, environmental governance, and the use of digital technologies in wildlife law enforcement.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Mae Jemison, aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1992.