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Mansa Musa was the ruler of the Mali Empire in West Africa. Details recorded here should be sourced; unknown information is left blank.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
Istiṣḥāb (Arabic: استصحاب transl. continuity) is an Islamic term used in the jurisprudence to denote the principle of the presumption of continuity.[1] It is derived from an Arabic word suhbah meaning accompany.[2] It is one of the fundamental principles of the legal deduction that presumes the continuation of a fact. It is based on probability and can be applied in the absence of other proofs.[3]
Istishab, an initiative of ash-Shafii,[4] is the rationalistic principle of extracting a legal solution according to which changes are not considered to occur until clear signs of these changes are apparent. It serves as the basis for many legal rulings such as the presumption of innocence—the person is regarded as innocent unless proven guilty. Malik ibn Anas and ash-Shafii regarded it to be a proof until it is contradicted.[5] Several classical jurists differed over this principle with some Hanafi jurists refusing to regard it as an evidence.[6][7] It is now widely employed by the contemporary scholars.[8][9]
Ibn al-Qayyim defined it as[10]
The continuation of what is established or the negation of what does not exist, i.e. it is the judgement, negative or positive, continues until there is evidence of a change of state. This continuance is not proved by positive evidence, but by the absence of the existence of new evidence.
Al-Qarafi expressed it as the validity of the former state in the following words.
Istishab means the belief that the past or present matter must be assumed to remain as it is in the present or future.
Examples of istishab in Islamic jurisprudence include:[citation needed]
Istishab is divided into several types. The majority of the scholars agree upon three types.[11]
It is the absence of any Shariah norms on an adult Muslim, until their legitimacy is established. An example is the absence of the mandatory sixth prayer for a Muslim, the presumption of the person's innocence of a crime, etc. Islamic theologians are unanimous regarding the validity of this type.[12]
The overwhelming majority of jurists believe that the basis in useful everyday things is permissibility and in harmful things is prohibition. For example, a certain type of food is allowed until a Sharia argument is established, proving its prohibition.
If there are Sharia texts with respect to any norm, backed up by the Istishab, then statements about the abolition of this rule will not be accepted until they are backed up by evidence. An example is the continued ownership of property rights. The application to terminate property will not be accepted until evidence is submitted supporting these statements. Another example is the validity of the ablution, which will not invalidated on the mere basis of doubt.
Islamic legal term for the presumption of continuity, where a situation existing previously is presumed to be continuing at present until the contrary is proven.
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Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
Istiṣḥāb (Arabic: استصحاب transl. continuity) is an Islamic term used in the jurisprudence to denote the principle of the presumption of continuity. It is derived from an Arabic word suhbah meaning accompany. It is one of the fundamental principles of the legal deduction that presumes the continuation of a fact. It is based on probability and can be applied in the absence of other proofs. Istishab, an initiative of ash-Shafii, is the rationalistic principle of extracting a legal solution according to which changes are not considered to occur until clear signs of these changes are apparent. It serves as the basis for many legal rulings such as the presumption of innocence—the person is regarded as innocent unless proven guilty. Malik ibn Anas and ash-Shafii regarded it to be a proof until it is contradicted. Several classical jurists differed over this principle with some Hanafi jurists refusing to regard it as an evidence. It is now widely employed by the contemporary scholars.
Usulism (Arabic: الأصولية, romanized: al-ʾUṣūliyya; from أصول meaning 'foundations' or 'principles') is the majority school of Twelver Shia Islam in opposition to the minority Akhbarism. The Usulis favor the use of ijtihad (reasoning) in the creation of new rules of jurisprudence; in assessing hadith to exclude traditions they believe unreliable; and in considering it obligatory to obey a mujtahid when seeking to determine Islamically correct behavior. Since its surpassing of the Akhbaris in the late 18th century, it has been the dominant school of Twelver Shi'a and now forms an overwhelming majority within the Twelver Shia denomination. The name Usuli derives from the term Uṣūl al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence). In Usuli thought, there are four valid sources of law: the Quran, hadith, ijma' and 'aql. Ijma' refers to a unanimous consensus. Aql, in Shia jurisprudence, is applied to four practical principles which are applied when other religious proofs are not applicable: bara'at (immunity), ihtiyat (recommended precautions), takhyir (selection), and istishab (the presumption of continuity in the previous state). The term Usuli is also sometimes used to refer more generally to students of usul especially among early Muslims, without regard to Shia Islam. Students/scholars of the principles of fiqh are distinguished from scholars of fiqh itself, whose scholars are known as faqīh (plural fuqahā').
Imam (; Arabic: إمام, imām; pl.: أئمة, a'immah) is an Islamic leadership position. In Shia Islam, the imams are absolute infallible leaders after the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Shia Muslims consider the term to be only applicable to the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, the family of Muhammad. In Twelver Shi'ism there are The Fourteen Infallibles, twelve of which are imams. In Sunni Islam, an imam generally refers to a religious leader, scholar, or the person who leads Muslims in prayer. The position is not necessarily hereditary or divinely appointed. Thus in Sunni Islam, anyone can study the basic Islamic teachings and become an imam.
Ayatollah is a title for high-ranking Twelver Shia clergy. It came into widespread usage in the 20th century. Those who hold this title must be men and specialists in Islamic sciences such as jurisprudence (fiqh) and principles (usul), often teaching in seminaries. The next lower rank among these clergy is Hojjatoleslam. Originally used as a title bestowed by popular/clerical acclaim for a small number of the most distinguished marja' at-taqlid mujtahid, it suffered from "inflation" following the 1979 Iranian Revolution when it came to be used for "any established mujtahid". By 2015, it was further expanded to include any student who had passed their Mujtahid final exam, leading to "thousands" of Ayatollahs. The title is not used by the Sunni community of Iran, as Sunnis do not believe in designated Imamate. In the Western world – particularly after the 1979 Iranian Revolution – it was associated with the Supreme Leader of Iran, especially Iran's first supreme leader Ruhollah Khomeini, who was so well known as to often be referred to as "The Ayatollah".
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Joe Louis.
