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In August 1908, a white mob attacked Springfield, Illinois’s Black community, destroying homes and businesses and lynching two Black men. National outrage over the violence helped spur the movement that created the NAACP the following year.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
| curl | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Original author | Daniel Stenberg[1] |
| Developer | Contributors to the curl project |
| Release | 1996[2] |
| Stable release | 8.23.0[3] 
/ 14 October 2026 |
| Written in | C |
| Platform | 29 platforms (see § libcurl for details) |
| Type | Web client (supports e.g. HTTPS, and FTP) |
| License | curl license[4][5] (inspired by the MIT License[5]) and a fraction uses the ISC |
| Website | curl |
| Repository | |
cURL (pronounced like "curl",[6] /kɜːrl/) is a free and open-source computer program for transferring data to and from Internet servers. It can download resources identified by URLs from a web server over HTTP and supports a variety of other network protocols, URI schemes, multiple versions of HTTP, and proxying. The project consists of a library (libcurl) and command-line tool (curl), which have been widely ported to different computing platforms. It was created by Daniel Stenberg, who is still the lead developer of the project.
The software was first released in 1996,[7] originally named httpget and then became urlget, before adopting the current name of curl.[8][9] The name stands for "Client and URL".[10] The original author and lead developer is the Swedish developer Daniel Stenberg, who created curl to power part of an IRC bot, because he wanted to automatically provide currency exchange rates, fetched from a website, to users in an IRC chat room.[2]
libcurl is a client-side URL transfer library that powers curl.[11] It supports numerous internet protocols including DICT, FILE, FTP, FTPS, GOPHER, GOPHERS, HTTP, HTTPS, IMAP, IMAPS, LDAP, LDAPS, MQTT, POP3, POP3S, RTMP, RTMPS, RTSP, SCP, SFTP, SMB, SMBS, SMTP, SMTPS, TELNET, TFTP, WS and WSS.
libcurl supports HTTP versions 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, HTTP/2 and HTTP/3 including h2c, prior-knowledge, dual-connect modes, and QUIC with 0-RTT handshakes.
The library provides features such as cookie handling, standard HTTP request methods (GET, POST, PUT, HEAD, multipart form uploads), and authentication mechanisms including Basic, Digest, NTLM, Negotiate, CRAM-MD5, SCRAM-SHA, Kerberos, Bearer tokens, AWS Sigv4, SASL, and reading credentials from .netrc.
libcurl supports a variety of security and transport features, including TLS 1.0-1.3, mutual authentication, STARTTLS, OCSP stapling, Encrypted Client Hello (ECH), False Start, key pinning, post-quantum readiness, session resumption, early data, session import/export, HSTS, Alt-Svc, Public Suffix List (PSL), entity tags (ETags), range requests, transfer compression (gzip, Brotli, zstd), custom headers, custom methods, and redirect following.
It also offers proxy and networking support, including SOCKS4, SOCKS5, HAProxy, and HTTP proxies with chaining and Unix domain sockets, as well as user-plus-password authentication[12]. Advanced name-resolution features include DNS-over-HTTPS, custom DNS servers, host/port mappings, and DNS caching.
Additional functionality includes file transfer resume, FTP uploading, form-based HTTP upload, HTTPS certificates, and mechanisms for controlling and monitoring transfers such as configurable timeouts, automatic retries, rate limiting, and detection of stalled connections. The library also provides enhanced reporting features, including JSON-formatted metadata, content-disposition handling, IDN hostname display, and customizable transfer information.
The libcurl library is portable, as it builds and works identically on most platforms, including:[13][14][15]
The libcurl library is thread-safe and IPv6 compatible. Bindings are available for more than 50 languages, including C, C++, Java, Julia (is bundled with), PHP and Python.[17]
The libcurl library supports SSL/TLS through GnuTLS, mbedTLS, SChannel (on Windows), OpenSSL, BoringSSL, AWS-LC, QuicTLS, LibreSSL, AmiSSL, wolfSSL and rustls.[18]
curl is a command-line tool for getting or sending data, including files, using URL syntax. curl provides an interface to the libcurl library; it supports every protocol libcurl supports.[12]
curl supports HTTPS, and performs SSL or TLS certificate verification by default. When curl connects to a remote server via HTTPS, it will obtain the remote server certificate, then checks against its CA certificate store the validity of the remote server to ensure the remote server is the one it claims to be. Some curl packages are bundled with a CA certificate store file. There are several options to specify a CA certificate, such as --cacert and --capath. The --cacert option can be used to specify the location of the CA certificate store file.
Starting with Windows 10 version 1809, Windows ships with curl.exe.[15] On Microsoft Windows, if a CA certificate file is not specified, curl will look for the curl-ca-bundle.crt file in the following locations, in the order given:[19]
curl.exe is located)C:\Windows\System32 directoryC:\Windows directoryPATH environment variablecurl will return an error message if the remote server is using a self-signed certificate, or if the remote server certificate is not signed by a CA listed in the CA cert file. -k or --insecure option can be used to skip certificate verification. Alternatively, if the remote server is trusted, the remote server CA certificate can be added to the CA certificate store file.
tiny-curl is a lightweight version of libcurl developed by wolfSSL Inc. for embedded and resource-constrained devices. It implements HTTPS functionality in roughly 100 KB of code on typical 32-bit architectures.
curl and libcurl are distributed under the MIT License. tiny-curl, a version of curl optimized for embedded systems and supported by wolfSSL, is available under both the GNU GPLv3-or-later and commercial licensing.
Rock-solid curl,[20] the long-term support (LTS) edition, uses the same curl license by default, with an option for commercial licensing for organizations that require contractual support or warranty coverage.
Daniel simply adopted an existing command-line open-source tool, httpget, that Brazilian Rafael Sagula had written and recently release version 0.1 of. After a few minor adjustments, it did just what he needed. [...] HttpGet 1.0 was released on April 8th 1997 with brand new HTTP proxy support. [...] Stenberg was spending time writing an IRC bot for an Amiga related channel on EFnet. He then came up with the idea to make currency-exchange calculations available to Internet Relay Chat (IRC) users.
The first curl release. The tool was named urlget before this. And httpget before that.
Per emulare il comportamento del comando Linux cURL, è sufficiente creare un file cURL.ps1 contenente la seguente riga di codice
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
cURL (pronounced like "curl", ) is a free and open-source computer program for transferring data to and from Internet servers. It can download resources identified by URLs from a web server over HTTP and supports a variety of other network protocols, URI schemes, multiple versions of HTTP, and proxying. The project consists of a library (libcurl) and command-line tool (curl), which have been widely ported to different computing platforms. It was created by Daniel Stenberg, who is still the lead developer of the project.
FTPFS refers to file systems that support access to a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server through standard file system application programming interfaces (APIs). The ftpfs command in Plan 9 was originated by Dennis Ritchie and was included in the first release of the system (1992). It arranged for a remote file system reachable via FTP to appear as part of the local file system. In Linux systems, FTPFS was initially implemented as a Linux kernel module that allows the user to mount a FTP server onto the local filesystem, but it was never seen as the perfect way to do it. By 2003, it has been converted to use LUFS, and later to FUSE. Now it is called CurlFtpFS because it uses the universal libcurl for FTP transactions, and is becoming part of the major Linux distributions. There also exists LftpFS for smart mirroring of FTP sites. In macOS, a read-only FTP file system is included that can be used either via the GUI (with ⌘ Command+K) or the command line (mount_ftp). The read-only limitation is noted in the man page for mount_ftp (on a macOS system, in Terminal.app, see "man mount_ftp"). However, the free application Macfusion includes a working implementation of FTPFS. Additionally, macOS Fuse is reported to enable this but the method to do so is undocumented (as of March 4, 2013) either via various obvious man page (e.g. sshfs) or in the macOS Fuse wiki. For Windows XP, Windows 7 and other Windows operating systems, this functionality is partially provided by the "Network Places"/"Network Location" shell facility; a network place is a link to either an FTP server or a WebDAV server and can be accessed in Windows Explorer as just another network filesystem. This does not provide transparent access through the lowest-level Win32 file system APIs, however. Such functionality can be provided by third party programs such as WebDrive and FTPDrive.
An application binary interface (ABI) is an interface exposed by software that is defined for in-process machine code access. Often, the exposing software is a library, and the consumer is a program. An ABI is at a relatively low level of abstraction. Interface compatibility depends on the target hardware and the software build toolchain. In contrast, an application programming interface (API) defines access in source code, which is a relatively high-level, hardware-independent, and human-readable format. An API defines an interface at the source code level, before compilation, whereas an ABI defines an interface to compiled code. API compatibility is generally the concern for system design and of the toolchain. However, a programmer may have to deal with an ABI directly when writing a program in multiple languages or when using multiple compilers for the same language. A complete ABI enables a program that supports an ABI to run without modification on multiple operating systems that provide the ABI. The target system must provide any required libraries (that implement the ABI), and there may be other prerequisites.
HTTP pipelining is a feature of HTTP/1.1 that allows multiple HTTP requests to be sent over a single TCP connection without waiting for the corresponding responses. HTTP/1.1 requires servers to respond to pipelined requests correctly, with non-pipelined but valid responses even if the server does not support HTTP pipelining. Despite this requirement, many legacy HTTP/1.1 servers do not support pipelining correctly, forcing most HTTP clients not to use HTTP pipelining. The technique was superseded by multiplexing via HTTP/2, which is supported by most modern browsers. In HTTP/3, multiplexing is accomplished via QUIC which replaces TCP. This further reduces loading time, as there is no head-of-line blocking even if some packets are lost.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Madam C.J. Walker
