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Mansa Musa was the ruler of the Mali Empire in West Africa. Details recorded here should be sourced; unknown information is left blank.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
Pollinator decline is the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide that began being recorded at the end of the 20th century. Multiple lines of evidence exist for the reduction of wild pollinator populations at the regional level, especially within Europe and North America.[1][2][3][4] Similar findings from studies in South America, China and Japan make it reasonable to suggest that declines are occurring around the globe.[5][6][7][8] The majority of studies focus on bees, particularly honeybee and bumblebee species, with a smaller number involving hoverflies and lepidopterans.[9][1][10][11][12]
The picture for domesticated pollinator species is less clear. Although the number of managed honey bee colonies in Europe and North America declined by 25% and 59% between 1985-2005 and 1947-2005 respectively, overall global stocks increased due to major hive number increases in countries such as China and Argentina.[13][14][15] Nevertheless, in the time managed honeybee hives increased by 45% the demand for animal pollinated crops tripled, highlighting the danger of relying on domesticated populations for pollination services.[15]
Pollinators participate in the sexual reproduction of many plants by ensuring cross-pollination, essential for some species and a major factor in ensuring genetic diversity for others. Since plants are the primary food source for animals, the possible reduction or disappearance of pollinators has been referred to as an "Armageddon" by some journalists.
The declines in abundance and diversity of insect pollinators over the twentieth century have been documented in highly industrialized regions of the world, particularly northwestern Europe and eastern North America.[16][17][18]
Colony collapse disorder has attracted much public attention. According to a 2013 blog the winter losses of beehives had increased in recent years in Europe and the United States, with a hive failure rate up to 50%.[19]
A 2017 German study, using 1,500 samples from 63 sites, indicated that the biomass of flying insects in that area had declined by three-quarters in the previous 25 years.[20] One 2009 study stated that while the bee population had increased by 45% over the past 50 years, the amount of crops which use bees had increased by 300%; although there is absolutely no evidence this has caused any problems, the authors propose it might cause "future pollination problems".[21]
In mathematical models of the networks linking different plants and their many pollinators,[22] such a network can continue to function very well under increasingly harsh conditions, but when conditions become extremely harsh, the entire network fails simultaneously.[23]
A 2021 study described as the "first long-term assessment of global bee decline", which analyzed GBIF-data of over a century, found that the number of bee species declined steeply worldwide after the 1990s, shrinking by a quarter in 2006–2015 compared to before 1990.[24][25]
Although the existence of pollinator decline can be difficult to determine, a number of possible reasons for the theoretical concept have been proposed, such as exposure to pathogens, parasites, and pesticides; habitat destruction; climate change; market forces; intra- and interspecific competition with native and invasive species; and genetic alterations.[26][27]
Honey bees are an invasive species throughout most of the world where they have been introduced, and the constant growth in the amount of these pollinators may possibly cause a decrease in native species.[21] Light pollution has been suggested a number of times as a possible reason for the possible decline in flying insects.[34][35][36][37] One study found that air pollution, such as from cars, has been inhibiting the ability of pollinators such as bees and butterflies to find the fragrances of flowers. Pollutants such as ozone, hydroxyl, and nitrate radicals bond quickly with volatile scent molecules of flowers, which consequently travel shorter distances intact. Pollinators must thus travel longer distances to find flowers.[38]
Pollinators may also face an increased risk of extinction because of global warming due to alterations in the seasonal behavior of species. Climate change can cause bees to emerge at times in the year when flowering plants were not available.[39]
Seven out of the ten most important crops in the world, in terms of volume, are pollinated by wind (maize, rice and wheat) or have vegetative propagation (banana, sugar cane, potato, beet, and cassava) and thus do not require animal pollinators for food production.[40] Additionally crops such as sugar beet, spinach and onions are self-pollinating and do not require insects.[41] Nonetheless, an estimated 87.5% of the world's flowering plant species are animal-pollinated,[42] and 60% of crop plant species[43] use animal pollinators. This includes the majority of fruits, many vegetables, and also fodder.[44] According to the USDA 80% of insect crop pollination in the US is due to honey bees.[45]
A study which examined how fifteen plant species said to be dependent on animals for pollination would be impacted by pollinator decline, by excluding pollinators from them with domes, found that while most species do not suffer any impacts from decline in terms of reduced fertilization rates (seed set), three species did.[46]
The expected direct reduction in total agricultural production in the US in the absence of animal pollination is expected to be 3 to 8%, with smaller impacts on agricultural production diversity.[47] Of all the possible consequences, the most important effect of pollinator decline for humans in Brazil, according to one 2016 study, would be the drop in income from high-value cash crops, and would impact the agricultural sector the most.[40] A 2000 study about the economic effects of the honey bee on US food crops calculated that it helped to produce US$14.6 billion in monetary value.[48] In 2009 another study calculated the worldwide value of the 100 crops that need pollinators at €153 billion (not including production costs).[49] Despite the dire predictions, the theorised decline in pollinators has had no effect on food production, with yields of both animal-pollinated and non-animal-pollinated crops increasing at the same rate, over the period of supposed pollinator decline.[50]
A 2015 study looked at the nutritional consequences of pollinator decline. It investigated if four third world populations might in the future potentially be at possible risk of malnutrition, assuming humans did not change their diet or have access to supplements, but concluded that this cannot be reliably predicted. According to their model, the size of the effect that pollinator decline had on a population depends on the local diet, and vitamin A is the most likely nutrient to become deficient, as it is already deficient.[51]
More studies also identified vitamin A as the most pollinator-dependent nutrient.[52][53] Another 2015 study also modeled what would happen should 100% of pollinators die off. In that scenario, 71 million people in low-income countries would become deficient in vitamin A, and the vitamin A intake of 2.2 billion people who are already consuming less than the recommended amount would further decline. Similarly, 173 million people would become deficient in folate, and 1.23 million people would further lessen their intake. Additionally, the global fruit supply would decrease by 22.9%, the global vegetable supply would decrease by 16.3%, and the global supply of nuts and seeds would decrease by 22.1%. This would lead to 1.42 million additional deaths each year from diseases, as well as 27 million disability-adjusted life years. In a less extreme scenario wherein only 50% of pollinators die off, 700,000 additional deaths would occur each year, as well as 13.2 million disability-adjusted years.[54]
One study estimated that 70% of dietary vitamin A worldwide is found in crops that are animal pollinated, as well as 55% of folate. At present, eating plants which are pollinated by animals is responsible for only 9%, 20%, and 29% of calcium, fluoride, and iron intake, respectively, with most coming from meat and dairy. 74% of all globally produced lipids are found in oils from plants that are animal pollinated, as well as 98% of vitamin C.[53]
Several scholars have called for application of the precautionary principle.[27][55]
Efforts are being made to sustain pollinator diversity in agricultural and natural ecosystems by some environmental groups.[56] In 2014 the Obama administration published "the Economic Challenge Posed by Declining Pollinator Populations" fact sheet, which stated that the 2015 budget proposal recommended congress appropriate approximately $50 million for pollinator habitat maintenance and to double the area in the Conservation Reserve Program dedicated to pollinator health, as well as recommending to "increase funding for surveys to determine the impacts on pollinator losses".[57]
Some international initiatives highlight the need for public participation and awareness of pollinator conservation.[58] Pollinators and their health have become growing concerns for the public. Around 18 states within America have responded to these concerns by creating legislation to address the issue. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, the enacted legislation in those states addresses five specific areas relating to pollinator decline: awareness, research, pesticides, habitat protection and beekeeping.[59]
A 2021 global assessment of the drivers of pollinator decline found that "global policy responses should focus on reducing pressure from changes in land cover and configuration, land management and pesticides, as these were considered very important drivers in most regions".[60]
It is difficult to determine whether North American pollinator species are declining, and no less challenging is determining the causes of putative declines or local extirpations. Many explanations have been invoked to account for declines in pollinator populations in North America, including, among others, exposure to pathogens, parasites, and pesticides; habitat fragmentation and loss; climate change; market forces; intra- and inter-specific competition with native and invasive species; and genetic alterations. Careful evaluation of the literature allows some causes to be assigned, but explanations are ambiguous or elusive for other species losses. ... The best evidence of specific pollinator decline is seen in the western honey bee, Apis mellifera L., the primary commercial pollinator of agricultural crops in North America and the most widely used, actively managed pollinator in the world. The population losses among honey bees are elucidated in a large body of literature...
[To] know whether or not a wholesale decline in flying pollinators ... is occurring across the world is very difficult, due to an insufficiency of geographically widespread and long-term data. Bees, as the best documented species, can be seen to be suffering from chronic exposure to a range of stressors, which include: a loss of abundance and diversity of flowers, and a decline in suitable habitat for them to build nests; long-term exposure to agrochemicals, including pesticides such as neonicotinoids; and infection by parasites and pathogens, many inadvertently spread by the actions of humans. [Climate] change may impact further on particular pollinators... Moreover, the co-operative element of various different stress factors should be noted; thus, for example, exposure to pesticides is known to diminish detoxification mechanisms and also immune responses, hence lowering the resistance of bees to parasitic infections. [For] wild non-bee insects – principally moths and butterflies – where data are available, the picture is also one of significant population losses. Alarmingly, a recent study in Germany indicated that a decline in the biomass of flying insects had occurred by 76% in less than three decades, as sampled in nature reserves across the country. Accordingly, to fully answer the question ... 'pollinator decline - an ecological calamity in the making?' will require many more detailed, more geographically encompassing, more species-inclusive, and longer-term studies, but the available evidence points to a clear 'probably', and the precautionary principle would suggest this is not a prospect we can afford to ignore.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2026 (link)
Environmentalists hailed a 'victory for bees' today after the European Union voted for a ban on the nerve-agent pesticides blamed for the dramatic decline global bee populations. ... Dr Lynn Dicks, a research associate at the University of Cambridge, said that despite the contradictory studies, the EU was right to err on the side of caution. 'This is a victory for the precautionary principle, which is supposed to underlie environmental regulation,' she said.
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
Pollinator decline is the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide that began being recorded at the end of the 20th century. Multiple lines of evidence exist for the reduction of wild pollinator populations at the regional level, especially within Europe and North America. Similar findings from studies in South America, China and Japan make it reasonable to suggest that declines are occurring around the globe. The majority of studies focus on bees, particularly honeybee and bumblebee species, with a smaller number involving hoverflies and lepidopterans. The picture for domesticated pollinator species is less clear. Although the number of managed honey bee colonies in Europe and North America declined by 25% and 59% between 1985-2005 and 1947-2005 respectively, overall global stocks increased due to major hive number increases in countries such as China and Argentina. Nevertheless, in the time managed honeybee hives increased by 45% the demand for animal pollinated crops tripled, highlighting the danger of relying on domesticated populations for pollination services. Pollinators participate in the sexual reproduction of many plants by ensuring cross-pollination, essential for some species and a major factor in ensuring genetic diversity for others. Since plants are the primary food source for animals, the possible reduction or disappearance of pollinators has been referred to as an "Armageddon" by some journalists.
Insects are the most numerous and widespread class in the animal kingdom, accounting for up to 90% of all animal species. In the 2010s, reports emerged about the widespread decline in populations across multiple insect orders. The reported severity shocked many observers, even though there had been earlier findings of pollinator decline. There have also been anecdotal reports of greater insect abundance earlier in the 20th century. Many car drivers know this anecdotal evidence through the windscreen phenomenon, for example. Causes for the decline in insect population are similar to those driving other biodiversity loss. They include habitat destruction, such as intensive agriculture, the use of pesticides (particularly insecticides), introduced species, and the effects of climate change. An additional cause that may be specific to insects is light pollution (research in that area is ongoing). Most commonly, the declines involve reductions in abundance, though in some cases entire species are going extinct. The declines are far from uniform. In some localities, there have been reports of increases in overall insect population, and some types of insects appear to be increasing in abundance across the world. Not all insect orders are affected in the same way; most affected are bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, dragonflies and damselflies. Many of the remaining insect groups have received less research to date. Also, comparative figures from earlier decades are often not available. In the few major global studies, estimates of the total number of insect species at risk of extinction range between 10% and 40%, though all of these estimates have been fraught with controversy. Studies concur that in areas where insects are declining, their abundance has been diminishing for decades. Yet, those trends had not been spotted earlier, as there has historically been much less interest in studying insects in comparison to mammals, birds and other vertebrates. One reason is the comparative lack of charismatic species of insects. In 2016, it was observed that while 30,000 insect species are known to inhabit Central Europe, there are practically no specialists in the region devoted to full-time monitoring. This issue of insufficient research is even more acute in the developing countries. As of 2021, nearly all of the studies on regional insect population trends come from Europe and the United States, even though they account for less than 20% of insect species worldwide. In Africa, Asia and South America there are hardly any observations of insects that span several decades. Such studies would be required to draw conclusions about population trends on a large scale. To respond to these declines, various governments have introduced conservation measures to help insects. For example, the German government started an Action Programme for Insect Protection in 2018. The goals of this program include promoting insect habitats in the agricultural landscape, and reducing pesticide use, light pollution, and pollutants in soil and water.
A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. Insects are the major pollinators of most plants, and insect pollinators include all families of bees and most families of aculeate wasps; ants; many families of flies; many lepidopterans (both butterflies and moths); and many families of beetles. Vertebrates, mainly bats and birds, but also some non-bat mammals (monkeys, lemurs, possums, rodents) and some lizards pollinate certain plants. Among the pollinating birds are hummingbirds, honeyeaters and sunbirds with long beaks; they pollinate a number of deep-throated flowers. Humans may also carry out artificial pollination. A pollinator is different from a pollenizer, a plant that is a source of pollen for the pollination process.
The Pollinator Pathway is a participatory art, design and ecology social sculpture initiative founded by the artist and designer Sarah Bergmann. Its objective is to connect existing isolated green spaces and create a more hospitable urban environment for pollinators like bees with a system of ecological corridors of flowering plants by using existing urban infrastructure such as curb space and rooftops.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Madam C.J. Walker
