Civil Rights
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
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Explore the people, places, events, achievements, struggles and stories that shaped our journey.
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
Innovation, patents, science, technology and world-changing contributions.
Pioneers, champions, Negro Leagues, records, activism and excellence.
Meet the people whose lives, choices and achievements shaped the journey.
Black towns, communities, institutions and places where history happened.
Moments that changed communities, movements, institutions and the nation.
Wilmington, North Carolina once had a thriving Black middle class and an elected interracial government. In 1898 white supremacists used violence to overthrow that government, kill Black residents and drive many others from the city.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
PRINT command of RT-11SJ displayed on a VT100.In computing, the print command
provides single-user print spooling capability in a number of operating systems. It is roughly similar to that provided by the UNIX System V lp and BSD lpr print spooler systems.
The command is available in the DEC RT-11,[1] OS/8,[2] RSX-11,[3] TOPS-10,[4] and TOPS-20[5] operating systems and also in DR FlexOS,[6] DR DOS, TSL PC-MOS,[7] Paragon Technology PTS-DOS,[8] SISNE plus,[9] IBM OS/2,[10] eComStation, ArcaOS, Microsoft Windows, FreeDOS,[11] Stratus OpenVOS,[12] AROS,[13] HP MPE/iX,[14] and OpenVMS.[15]
The FreeDOS version was developed by James Tabor and is licensed under the GPL.[16]
The command was introduced in MS-DOS/IBM PC DOS 2.0.[17][18] DR DOS 6.0 includes an implementation of the PRINT command.[19]
In early versions of DOS, printing was accomplished using the copy command: the file to be printed was "copied" to the file representing the print device.[20] Control returned to the user when the print job completed.[21] Beginning with DOS 2.0,[22] the print command was included to allow basic print spooling: the ability to continue to use the computer while printing occurred in the background, and the ability to create a queue of jobs to be printed.[23]
The print command allowed specifying one of many possible local printer interfaces,[23] and could make use of networked printers using the net command.[24] A maximum number of files and a maximum buffer size could be specified, and further command-line options allowed adding and removing files from the queue.[23] Margins, page lengths and number of copies could also be set,[25] as well as a parameter to adjust between favoring printing speed versus computer responsiveness.[23]
Users of the initial release of the print command commented on the slow print speed and high resource usage, as well as the lack of support for the newly introduced subdirectories.[22] The command was among the first RAM-resident programs and was the first to achieve widespread use, with many users disassembling the binary in order to determine how RAM-resident programs should be written.[21]
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
In computing, the print command provides single-user print spooling capability in a number of operating systems. It is roughly similar to that provided by the UNIX System V lp and BSD lpr print spooler systems.
A command-line interface (CLI), also known as a command-line shell, is a means of interacting with software via commands – each formatted as a line of text. The concept of interacting with a computer via text evolved over two decades, transitioning from physical hardware to sophisticated software. Before the CLI, computers were programmed using physical switches or punched cards. The shift toward a "command" style interaction began with the use of teleprinters/teletypes. Early systems like the Whirlwind I (1951) at MIT began utilizing typewriter-like inputs for direct control, moving away from batch processing where you'd hand a stack of cards to an operator and wait hours for a result. Devices like the Teletype Model 33, introduced in 1963, allowed operators to type a command and receive a printed response from the computer. The command-line interpreter emerged when computers became powerful enough to handle multiple users at once, known as time-sharing. The Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), developed in 1961 at MIT, introduced the first true command-line interpreter. For the first time, a user could type a command like LOGIN or PRINT, and a dedicated program (the supervisor) would parse that text and execute the corresponding function. In 1964, Louis Pouzin introduced the software we now recognize as a "shell" for the Multics operating system, providing a programmable environment for executing scripts. Many utilities for operating system management and software development provide CLIs. Many CLIs enable software automation, since commands can be stored in a script file that can be used repeatedly. A script allows its contained commands to be executed as a group (as a single program). Alternatives to a CLI include a GUI (including the desktop metaphor such as Windows), text-based menuing (including DOS Shell and IBM AIX SMIT), and keyboard shortcuts.
In computing, a command is a high-level instruction received via an external interface that directs the behavior of a computer program. Commonly, commands are sent to a program via a command-line interface, a script, a network protocol, or as an event triggered in a graphical user interface. Many commands support arguments to specify input and to modify default behavior. Terminology and syntax varies but there are notable common approaches. Typically, an option or a flag is a name (without whitespace) with a prefix such as dash or a slash that modifies default behavior. An option might have a required value that follows it. Typically, a flag refers to an option that does not have a following value. A parameter is an argument that specifies input to the command and its meaning is based on its position in the command line relative to other parameters; generally ignoring options. A parameter can specify anything, but often it specifies a file by name or path. The term command is sometimes also used for internal program instructions, but often other terms are more appropriate such as statement, expression, function, or conditional. For example, printing a message in Bash is via the command printf, while in Python it is via the function print(). Further, some aspects of adjacent technology are conflated with commands. For example, conditional logic in Bash and Python is called an expression and statements in Java.
A read–eval–print loop (REPL), also termed an interactive toplevel or language shell, is a simple interactive computer programming environment that takes single user inputs, executes them, and returns the result to the user; a program written in a REPL environment is executed piecewise. The term usually refers to programming interfaces similar to the classic Lisp machine interactive environment or to Common Lisp with the SLIME development environment. Common examples include command-line shells and similar environments for programming languages, and the technique is very characteristic of scripting languages, even though their characteristics can vary greatly.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.