Civil Rights
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
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Explore the people, places, events, achievements, struggles and stories that shaped our journey.
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
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Meet the people whose lives, choices and achievements shaped the journey.
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Mansa Musa was the ruler of the Mali Empire in West Africa. Details recorded here should be sourced; unknown information is left blank.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
In cryptography, a round or round function is a basic transformation that is repeated (iterated) multiple times inside the algorithm. Splitting a large algorithmic function into rounds simplifies both implementation and cryptanalysis. For example, encryption using an oversimplified three-round cipher can be written as C = R 3 ( R 2 ( R 1 ( P ) ) ) {\displaystyle C=R_{3}(R_{2}(R_{1}(P)))} , where C is the ciphertext and P is the plaintext. Typically, rounds R 1 , R 2 , . . . {\displaystyle R_{1},R_{2},...} are implemented using the same function, parameterized by the round constant and, for block ciphers, the round key from the key schedule. Parameterization is essential to reduce the self-similarity of the cipher, which could lead to slide attacks. Increasing the number of rounds "almost always" protects against differential and linear cryptanalysis, as for these tools the effort grows exponentially with the number of rounds. However, increasing the number of rounds does not always make weak ciphers into strong ones, as some attacks do not depend on the number of rounds. The idea of an iterative cipher using repeated application of simple non-commutating operations producing diffusion and confusion goes as far back as 1945, to the then-secret version of C. E. Shannon's work "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems"; Shannon was inspired by mixing transformations used in the field of dynamical systems theory (cf. horseshoe map). Most of the modern ciphers use iterative design with number of rounds usually chosen between 8 and 32 (with 64 and even 80 used in cryptographic hashes). For some Feistel-like cipher descriptions, notably that of the RC5, a term "half-round" is used to define the transformation of part of the data (a distinguishing feature of the Feistel design). This operation corresponds to a full round in traditional descriptions of Feistel ciphers (like DES).
Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization is a program and competition by NIST to update their standards to include post-quantum cryptography. It was announced at PQCrypto 2016. Twenty-three signature schemes and fifty-nine encryption/KEM schemes were submitted by the initial submission deadline at the end of 2017 of which sixty-nine total were deemed complete and proper and participated in the first round. Seven of these, of which three are signature schemes, advanced to the third round, which was announced in July 2020. On August 13, 2024, NIST released final versions of the first three Post Quantum Crypto Standards: FIPS 203, FIPS 204, and FIPS 205. On March 11, 2025 NIST released Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC) as the fifth algorithm for post-quantum asymmetric encryption as used for key encapsulation / exchange.
In cryptography, a Feistel cipher (also known as Luby–Rackoff block cipher) is a symmetric structure used in the construction of block ciphers, named after the German-born physicist and cryptographer Horst Feistel, who did pioneering research while working for IBM; it is also commonly known as a Feistel network. A large number of block ciphers use the scheme, including the US Data Encryption Standard, the Soviet/Russian GOST (aka Magma) and the more recent Blowfish and Twofish ciphers. In a Feistel cipher, encryption and decryption are very similar operations, and both consist of iteratively running a function called a "round function" a fixed number of times.
In cryptography, MAGENTA is a symmetric key block cipher developed by Michael Jacobson Jr. and Klaus Huber for Deutsche Telekom. The name MAGENTA is an acronym for Multifunctional Algorithm for General-purpose Encryption and Network Telecommunication Applications. (The color magenta is also part of the corporate identity of Deutsche Telekom.) The cipher was submitted to the Advanced Encryption Standard process, but did not advance beyond the first round; cryptographic weaknesses were discovered and it was found to be one of the slower ciphers submitted. MAGENTA has a block size of 128 bits and key sizes of 128, 192 and 256 bits. It is a Feistel cipher with six or eight rounds. After the presentation of the cipher at the first AES conference, several cryptographers immediately found vulnerabilities. These were written up and presented at the second AES conference (Biham et al., 1999).
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
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