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In 1968 Shirley Chisholm became the first Black woman elected to the United States Congress. In 1972 she launched a campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination, breaking another political barrier.
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This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
| Samsu-iluna 𒊓𒄠𒋢𒄿𒇻𒈾 | |
|---|---|
| King of Babylon | |
| Reign | c. 1749 - c. 1712 BC |
| Predecessor | Hammurabi |
| Successor | Abi-Eshuh |
| Born | c. 1793 BC |
| Died | c. 1712 BC (aged c. 81) |
| Issue | Abi-Eshuh |
| Father | Hammurabi |
| Religion | Ancient Mesopotamian religion |
Samsu-iluna (Amorite: Samsu-iluna[1] or Samsu-ilūna,[2] "The Sun (is) our god"; c. 1793 BC - c. 1712 BC) was the 7th king of the founding Amorite dynasty of Babylon. His reign is estimated from 1749 BC to 1712 BC (middle chronology), or from 1686 to 1648 BC (short chronology). He was the son and successor of Hammurabi. His reign was marked by the violent uprisings of areas conquered by his father and the abandonment of several important cities primarily in Sumer.[3] A number of letters sent by Samsu-iluna have been found of which 20 have been published. One is addressed to Abban the king of Aleppo. No received letters have been found due to the modern high water table at Babylon.[4]
When Hammurabi rose to power in the city of Babylon, he controlled a small region directly around that city, and was surrounded by vastly more powerful opponents on all sides. By the time he died, he had conquered Sumer, Eshnunna, and Mari, and reduced Assyria to vassal status, making himself master of Mesopotamia. He had also significantly weakened and humiliated Elam and the Gutians.[3]: 49–50 [5]: 195–201
While defeated, however, these states were not destroyed; if Hammurabi had a plan for welding them to Babylon he did not live long enough to see it through. Within a few years after his death, Elam and Assyria had left from Babylon's orbit and revolutions had started in all the conquered territories. The task of dealing with these troubles—and others—fell to Samsu-iluna. Though he campaigned tirelessly and seems to have won frequently, the king proved unable to stop the empire's unwinding. Through it all, however, he did manage to keep the core of his kingdom intact, and this allowed the city of Babylon to cement its position in history.
In the 9th year of Samsu-iluna's reign a man calling himself Rim-sin (known in the literature as Rim-Sîn II, and thought to perhaps be a nephew of the Rim-sin who opposed Hammurabi)[6]: 48–49 raised a rebellion against Babylonian authority in Larsa which spread to include some 26 cities, among them Uruk, Ur, Isin, and Kisurra in the south, and Eshnunna[5]: 243 [6]: 48–49 [7]: 115 in the north. There is a statue inscription of Samsu-iluna which describes some of this conflict.[8]
Samsu-iluna seems to have had the upper-hand militarily. Within a year he dealt the coalition a shattering blow which took the northern cities out of the fight.[Note 1] In the aftermath, the king of Eshnunna, Ilūni, was dragged to Babylon and executed by strangulation.[5]: 243 Over the course of the next 4 years, Samsu-iluna's armies tangled with Rim-sin's forces up and down the borderlands between Babylon, Sumer, and Elam. Eventually, Samsu-iluna attacked Ur, pulled down its walls and put the city to the sack, he then did the same to Uruk, and Isin as well.[6]: 48–49 [Note 2] Finally, Larsa itself was defeated and Rim-sin II was killed, thus ending the struggle.[5]: 243
A few years later, a pretender calling himself Ilum-ma-ili, and claiming descent from the last king of Isin, raised another pan-Sumerian revolt. Samsu-iluna marched an army to Sumer, and the two met in a battle which proved indecisive; a second battle sometime later went Ilum-ma-ili's way, and in its aftermath, he founded the First Dynasty of Sea-Land,[5]: 243 [Note 3] which would remain in control of Sumer for the next 300 years. Samsu-iluna seems to have taken a defensive approach after this; in the 18th year of his reign, he saw to the rebuilding of 6 fortresses in the vicinity of Nippur[9]: 380–382 which might have been intended to keep that city under Babylonian control. Ultimately, this proved fruitless; by the time of Samsu-iluna's death, Nippur recognized Ilum-ma-ili as king.[6]: 48–49
Apparently, Eshnunna had not reconciled itself to Babylonian control either, because in Samsu-iluna's 20th year it rebelled again.[6]: 48–49 Samsu-iluna marched his army through the region and, presumably after some bloodshed, constructed the fortress of Dur-samsuiluna to keep them in line. This seems to have done the trick, as later documents see Samsu-iluna take a more conciliatory stance repairing infrastructure and restoring waterways.[6]: 48–49
Both Assyria and Elam used the general chaos to re-assert their independence. Kuturnahunte I of Elam, seizing the opportunity left by Samsu-iluna's attack on Uruk, marched into the (now wall-less) city and plundered it. Among the items looted was a statue of Inanna which would not be returned until the reign of Ashurbanipal eleven centuries later.[5]: 243 In Assyria, a native vice regent named Puzur-Sin ejected Asinum who had been a vassal king of his fellow Amorite Hammurabi. A native king Ashur-dugul seized the throne, and a period of civil war in Assyria ensued. Samsu-Iluna seems to have been powerless to intervene, and finally a king named Adasi restored a stable native dynasty in Assyria, removing any vestages of Amorite-Babylonian influence.[10]: section 576 apud [5]: 243
In the end, Samsu-iluna was left with a kingdom that was only fractionally larger than the one he started out with (but which did leave him mastery of the Euphrates River up to and including the ruins of Mari and its dependencies).[7]: 115 [Note 4] The status of Eshnunna is difficult to determine with any accuracy, and while it may have remained in Babylonian hands the city was exhausted and its political influence at an end.
Samsu-iluna's campaigns might not have been solely responsible for the havoc wreaked upon Uruk and Ur, and his loss of Sumer might have been as much a calculated retreat as defeat.
Records in the cities of Ur and Uruk essentially stop after the 10th year of Samsu-iluna's reign. Their priests apparently continued writing, but from more northerly cities.[7]: 115 Larsa's records also end about this time. Records keep going in Nippur and Isin until Samsu-iluna's 29th year, and then cease there as well. These breaks are also observed in the archeological record, where evidence points to these cities being largely or completely abandoned for hundreds of years, until well into the Kassite period.[3]: 49–50
Reasons for this are hard to come by. Certainly the constant warfare cannot have helped matters, but Samsu-iluna appears to have campaigned just as hard in the north, and that region was thriving during the period.[7]: 115 The rise of Babylon marks a definite end to Sumerian cultural dominance of Mesopotamia and a shift to Akkadian for government and popular writing;[7]: 117 perhaps people who claimed cultural ties to the Sumerian past retrenched around the southerly cities which Iluna-ilu controlled. Several members of his dynasty took Sumerian names, and it appears they consciously strove to return to the region's Sumerian roots.[3]: 49–50 It is also possible that economic or environmental factors were involved; it is known that both Hammurabi and Rim-sin I had instituted policies which altered the economies of the region.[7]: 115 These may have proven unsustainable in the long-term.
Though troubled, Samsu-iluna's reign was not entirely focused on war. He is known to have rebuilt the walls of Kish, Nippur and Sippar for example,[3]: 75 [9]: 374–377 and to have propagated the Marduk cult as had his father. He also apparently restored the E-babbar temple of Shamash (Also known as Utu) in Larsa, ziggurats at Sippar,[9]: 374–376 and the ziggurat of Zababa and Ishtar at Kish.[9]: 382–385
Additionally, there is speculation[13]: 103 that Samsu-iluna instituted the Standard Babylonian calendar, possibly as a means of tying his empire more closely together.
Samsu-iluna had at least one attested child:
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Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
Samsu-iluna (Amorite: Samsu-iluna or Samsu-ilūna, "The Sun (is) our god"; c. 1793 BC - c. 1712 BC) was the 7th king of the founding Amorite dynasty of Babylon. His reign is estimated from 1749 BC to 1712 BC (middle chronology), or from 1686 to 1648 BC (short chronology). He was the son and successor of Hammurabi. His reign was marked by the violent uprisings of areas conquered by his father and the abandonment of several important cities primarily in Sumer. A number of letters sent by Samsu-iluna have been found of which 20 have been published. One is addressed to Abban the king of Aleppo. No received letters have been found due to the modern high water table at Babylon.
Hammurabi (; Old Babylonian Akkadian: 𒄩𒄠𒈬𒊏𒁉, romanized: Ḫammu-rāpi; Akkadian: [xammuˈraːpʰi]; c. 1810 BC – c. 1750 BC), also spelled Hammurapi, was the sixth Amorite king of Babylon, reigning from c. 1792 BC to c. 1750 BC. He was preceded by his father, Sin-muballit. During his reign, he conquered the powerful kingdoms of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule. It was under his rule that Babylon rose to the status of a leading kingdom on the political stage of the Middle East, and that the foundations were laid for it to become one of the major cities of ancient history. Hammurabi is best known for having issued his law code, said to have been inspired by Shamash, the Babylonian god of Justice. It is one of the oldest legal texts ever discovered, and the longest to have survived from the ancient Near East. His reign is also one of the Mesopotamian reigns best documented by written records, particularly thanks to the correspondence unearthed in two of the cities he subjugated, Larsa and Mari, which sheds light on various facets of how he exercised power during the second half of his reign. His son Samsu-iluna succeeded him but failed to maintain the empire he had built. After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror, but later his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy. Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late 19th century and has since been seen as an important figure in the history of law.
Babylon ( BAB-il-on) was an ancient city located on the lower Euphrates river in southern Mesopotamia, within modern-day Hillah, Iraq, about 85 kilometres (53 miles) south of modern-day Baghdad. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the Akkadian-speaking region of Babylonia. Its rulers established two important empires in antiquity, the 19th–16th century BC Old Babylonian Empire, and the 7th–6th century BC Neo-Babylonian Empire. Babylon also served as a regional capital of other empires, such as the Achaemenid Empire. Babylon was one of the most important urban centres of the ancient Near East until its decline during the Hellenistic period. Nearby ancient sites include Kish, Borsippa, Dilbat, and Kutha. Both the Hanging Gardens and Walls of Babylon were ranked among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The gardens purportedly existed between approximately 600 BC and AD 1, but some scholars question their historical reality, as they are not mentioned in any extant Babylonian text. The earliest known mention of Babylon as a small town appears on a clay tablet from the reign of Shar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC), of the Akkadian Empire. Babylon was a religious and cultural centre at this point but was neither an independent state nor a large city, merely a town of the Akkadian Empire. The collapse of the Akkadian Empire was followed by a few decades under the south Mesopotamian Gutian Dynasty, then the Third Dynasty of Ur ruling the whole of Mesopotamia, including the town of Babylon. The town became part of a small independent city-state in the early second millennium BC. The Amorite king Hammurabi founded the Old Babylonian Empire in the 18th century BC. He built Babylon into a major city and declared himself its king. Southern Mesopotamia became known as Babylonia, and Babylon eclipsed Nippur as the region's holy city. The empire waned under Hammurabi's son Samsu-iluna, and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. After the Assyrians destroyed and then rebuilt it, Babylon became the capital of the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire, from 626 to 539 BC. After the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the city came under the rule of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman, Sassanid, and Muslim empires. The last known habitation of the town dates from the 11th century AD, when it was referred to as the "small village of Babel". It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world c. 1770 – c. 1670 BC, and again c. 612 – c. 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000 in an area of about 900 ha (3.5 sq mi). The main sources of information about Babylon—excavation of the site itself, references in cuneiform texts found elsewhere in Mesopotamia, references in the Bible, descriptions in Herodotus and other classical authors, and second-hand summaries of the work of Ctesias and Berossus—present an incomplete and sometimes contradictory picture of the ancient city, even at its peak in the sixth century BC. UNESCO recognized Babylon as a World Heritage Site in 2019. The site receives thousands of visitors each year, almost all of them Iraqis. Local construction is rapidly increasing, threatening to encroach upon the ruins.
Rim-Sîn II (also Rīm-Sîn II) ruled the ancient Near East city-state of Larsa from c. 1742 BC to 1739 BC (MC) and was the last of the Dynasty of Larsa. It is now thought that his total reign lasted less than 2 years. His name was sometimes preceded by a Dingir though there is no record of him being deified. Rim-Sin II was a contemporary of Samsu-iluna of Babylon (c. 1749-1712 BC), and fellow rebels Ilūni of Eshnunna, Rim-Šara of Umma, and Rîm-Anum of Uruk. Though he joined in revolting against Babylon Rim-Anum of Uruk had been in conflict with Larsa based on his year name of "Year in which Rîm-Anum the king defeated the land of Emutbal, the troops of Eshnunna, Isin and Kazallu who marched together against him to make booty ... which was not counted since ancient times ... and defeated them". Rim-Sin II is mentioned as a son of one Warad-Sin though it is unclear if that is the Warad-Sin who was the previous ruler of Larsa. It is not even clear that he came from Larsa. In one of the letters of Rim-Sin II suggests his family came from Kesh: "To Amurrum-illatī, speak; thus says Rim-Sin. In order to set light (upon) Emutbalum and to regather its scattered people, the great gods established firmly the foundation of my throne in Keš, the city of the one who bore me. Just as the entire land has heard and rejoiced (about it) and has come and met with me, you must also come and meet with me. ..." Several year names of Rim-Sin II are known (note that the Emudkura temple was at Ur): The year Rim-Sîn [became] king Year the foundations of (the temple) Emudkur in Ur were laid at? the ki-eden Alt - The year Rim-Sîn, the king of Ur, established the Emudkurra at Year in which Ninmah raised greatly in the Kesh temple, the foundation of heaven and earth, (Rim-Sin) to kingship over the land, (king) having no enemy, no hostile (king), opposing him in all foreign lands. Alt - Year Ninmah elevated Rim-Sin to the kingship over all the countries in the temple of Kis, foundation of heaven and earth, and he (Rim-Sin) let not the bad and wicked come back Alt - The year Ninmaḫ raised Rim-Sin, the king, to kingship (over) the entire land in the Keš temple, the temenos of heaven and earth, while the enemies, the evil Kassites, had not retreated from the land Rim-Sîn II is primarily known for leading the Babylonian Rebellion by a number of southern cities against Babylon which at that time was led by Samsu-iluna, the son and successor of Hammurabi. A statue inscription of Samsu-iluna detailed his destruction of the rebellion, from his perspective. This conflict was mentioned (Tablet B) in the much later fragmentary Chronicle of Ancient Kings. The rebellious cities included Ur, Uruk, Larsa, Girsu, Umma, Nippur, Kazallu, Kutalla, and Bad-tibira as well as Eshnunna in the north. The rebellion began in the 8th regnal year of Samsu-iluna. Rim-Sîn II controlled the cities of Nippur and Ur for a time. Documents at Nippur were dated to Samsu-iluna until his year 8, then to Rim-Sin II, returning to being dated to Samsu-iluna in his year 11. There were Kassite troops included in his forces. The rebellion ended for Rim-Sîn II about 18 months later with his death and the fall of Larsa to Samsu-iluna with his year name of "Year in which Samsu-iluna the king with the great strength of Marduk smote with weapons the troops of Ida-maras, Emutbal, Uruk and Isin". It continued until Samsu-iluna 14 when his year name was "Year in which Samsu-iluna the king with great power smote with his weapons the hateful king(s) who had brought the people of Akkad to revolt". In a text Samsu-iluna stated: "The year was not half over when he (Samsuiluna) killed Rim-Sin, suborner of Emutbalum, who had been elevated to the kingship of Larsa, and in the land of Kiš he heaped up a burial mound over him. Twenty-six rebel kings, his foes, he killed; he slaughtered each one of them. He captured Iluni, the king of Ešnunna, one who had not heeded his words, led him off in a neck-stock, and had his throat cut. He brought the totality of Sumer and Akkad into agreement, (and) made the four quarters dwell by his command."
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Mae Jemison, aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour in 1992.
