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Wilmington, North Carolina once had a thriving Black middle class and an elected interracial government. In 1898 white supremacists used violence to overthrow that government, kill Black residents and drive many others from the city.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
The Sikh gurus (Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖ ਗੁਰੂ; Hindi: सिख गुरु) are the spiritual masters or sources of learning of Sikhism, who established the religion over the course of about two and a half centuries, beginning in 1469.[2] The year 1469 marks the birth of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism. Nine other human gurus succeeded him. Then, in 1708, the tenth guru passed the guruship on to the holy Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, which is now considered the living guru by the followers of the Sikh faith.[3][4] The guruship was also passed on to the Guru Panth, consisting of the Khalsa; however, this form of guruship went into decline following the rise of Ranjit Singh.[5][6]
Guru (/ˈɡuruː/, UK also /ˈɡʊruː, ˈɡʊər-/; Sanskrit: गुरु, Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ, IAST: guru) is a Sanskrit term for a "teacher, guide, expert, or master" of a certain field or area of knowledge.[7] Bhai Vir Singh, in his dictionary of Guru Granth Sahib describes the term guru as a combination of two separate units: "Gu;(ਗੁ)" meaning darkness and "Rū;(ਰੂ)" which means light.[8] Hence, guru is that which brings light into darkness — or, in other words, the one who enlightens. Bhai Vir Singh's definition provides further insight about Sikhism itself and explains why Guru Granth Sahib is considered the living Guru. The word Sikh is derived from the Sanskrit term shishya[9] (Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖ) which means a disciple or a student. Thus, Sikhs have a student–teacher relationship with their gurus since their teachings, as written in Guru Granth Sahib, serve as a guide for Sikhs.
According to Sikh beliefs, all the Gurus contained the same light or soul and their physical body was a vessel for containing the same essence. When one guru passed, the successor inherited this light and that is why the gurus are also referred to as mahalla (house).[10] They were formally referred to as patiśāh, being viewed by Sikhs as the masters of both spiritual (dīn/pīrī) and temporal (dunīyā/mīrī) affairs.[11]
Guru Nanak, the first guru, was succeeded as guru by Guru Angad. By 1600, there were many contesting claimaints for the Sikh guruship, leading to internal strife and divisions. It was during the period of Guru Gobind Singh that reforms were introduced, such as the formal introduction of the Khalsa Panth and a steady ceasing of a personal, human guruship, preparing for a future without one. The last guru declared that after him the guruship would pass both onto the Khālsā Panth and Granth Sahib. The Khalsa was supposed to act in accordance with the scripture, which was the guiding wisdom of revelation, while the Panth was invested with authority (jāmā) that had formerly been conferred upon a personal leader (human gurus) but now was the responsibility of the collective community, with personal leadership being rejected. The goal set forth was sovereignty (patiśāhī).[11]
| No. | Name | Portrait | Birth date | Guruship | Birthplace | Clan | Father | Mother | Date of death | Reason | Place of death |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Guru Nanak | 
|
14 April 1469 [note 1] | Since birth | Nankana Sahib, Punjab, Delhi Sultanate | Bedi Khatri | Kalyan Das Bedi | Mata Tripta | 22 September 1539 (aged 70) | Natural causes | Kartarpur, Punjab, Mughal Empire |
| 2 | Guru Angad | 
|
31 March 1504 | 7 September 1539 | Muktsar, Punjab, Mughal Empire | Trehan Khatri | Baba Pheru Mal | Mata Ramo | 29 March 1552 (aged 47) | Natural causes | Khadur Sahib, Punjab, Mughal Empire |
| 3 | Guru Amar Das | 
|
5 May 1479 | 26 April 1552 | Amritsar, Punjab, Mughal Empire | Bhalla Khatri | Tej Bhan Bhalla | Mata Lachmi | 1 September 1574 (aged 95) | Natural causes | Goindval, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 4 | Guru Ram Das | 
|
24 September 1534 | 1 September 1574 | Lahore, Punjab, Mughal Empire | Sodhi Khatri | Baba Har Das | Mata Daya | 1 September 1581 (aged 46) | Natural causes | Goindval, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 5 | Guru Arjan | 
|
15 April 1563 | 1 September 1581 | Goindval, Punjab, Mughal Empire | Sodhi Khatri | Guru Ram Das | Mata Bhani | 30 May 1606 (aged 43) | Execution by Mughal Emperor Jahangir | Lahore, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 6 | Guru Hargobind | 
|
19 June 1595 | 25 May 1606 | Amritsar, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire | Sodhi Khatri | Guru Arjan | Mata Ganga | 28 February 1644 (aged 48) | Natural causes | Kiratpur Sahib, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 7 | Guru Har Rai | 
|
16 January 1630 | 3 March 1644 | Kiratpur Sahib, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire | Sodhi Khatri | Baba Gurditta | Mata Nihal Kaur | 6 October 1661 (aged 31) | Natural causes | Delhi, Delhi Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 8 | Guru Har Krishan | 
|
7 July 1656 | 7 October 1661 | Kiratpur Sahib, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire | Sodhi Khatri | Guru Har Rai | Mata Krishan Kaur | 30 March 1664 (aged 7) | Smallpox | Delhi, Delhi Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 9 | Guru Tegh Bahadur | 
|
1 April 1621 | 20 March 1664 | Amritsar, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire | Sodhi Khatri | Guru Hargobind | Mata Nanaki | 11 November 1675 (aged 54) | Execution by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb | Delhi, Delhi Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 10 | Guru Gobind Singh | 
|
22 December 1666 | 11 November 1675 | Patna Sahib, Bihar Subah, Mughal Empire | Sodhi Khatri | Guru Tegh Bahadur | Mata Gujri | 7 October 1708 (aged 41) | Assassinated by Jamshed Khan and Wasil Beg on order of Wazir Khan | Hazur Sahib, Bidar Subah, Mughal Empire |
| 11 | Guru Panth[5][12][13][6] | 
|
Vaisakhi, April 1699[14] | Kesgarh Qila, Anandpur Sahib, Punjab[15] | Casteless[16][17] | Guru Gobind Singh (spirtually)[5] | Mata Sahib Devan (spiritually)[18] | Whilst prevalent in the 18th century, this manner of guruship went into decline following the rise of Ranjit Singh and is seldom evoked today, being overshadowed by the Guru Granth.[5] | |||
| Guru Granth Sahib | 
|
29 August 1604 (date of completion of compilation of the first draft [Adi Granth]) |
20 October 1708 | Amritsar, Lahore Subah, Mughal Empire (place of compilation) |
The central holy scripture of Sikhism, regarded as the final, sovereign and eternal Guru. | ||||||
Guru Nanak founded Kartarpur (Narowal) in the 1520s and remained there until his death in 1539.[19] Nanak's successor, Guru Angad, made his native Khadur his headquarters and remained there throughout his guruship from 1539 to 1551.[19] Guru Amar Das founded Goindwal and resided there from 1551 to 1574.[19] Guru Ram Das established Ramdaspur (now called Amritsar) and remained there from 1574 to 1581.[19] Guru Arjan also resided at Amritsar but also founded the settlements of Kartarpur (Jalandhar), Hargobindpur, and Tarn Taran.[19] Guru Hargobind had Amritsar as his base from 1606–1628 but shifted to Kartarpur between 1628–1634.[19] Guru Hargobind founded Kiratpur in 1634, where he remained until his death in 1644.[19] Guru Har Rai resided at Kiratpur during his guruship, as did Guru Har Krishan.[19] The next Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur, founded Anandpur in 1664 and remained there until 1675, yet also travelled to distant areas, such as Dhaka and Patna in eastern India.[19] The tenth Sikh guru, Guru Gobind Singh, remained at Anandpur from 1675–1704.[19] He founded the settlements of Paonta (1685) and Damdama (Bathinda) in 1705, where he remained for two years until he journeyed down south to Nanded, dying in 1708.[19]
Guru Gobind Singh is traditionally believed to have announced that the personal transmission would end at his death, but that the mystical Guru would remain embodied in the scripture and the corporate Panth. ... GURU PANTH. The Guru Panth was a doctrine particularly suited to the circumstances of the 18th century, providing an effective means of decision making for Sikhs who were divided into several misls. When unification was achieved under Ranjit Singh the practice of eliciting corporate decisions from the Panth was discarded. The doctrine is still maintained today, and efforts are occasionally made to seek the Guru's will by this means. It is, however, seldom invoked. The voice of the Guru is much more commonly sought through the words of the Guru Granth.
The author of the Dabistan refers to the belief of the Sikhs in the unity of Guruship. The spirit of Guru Nanak entered the bodies of his successors - Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das and Guru Arjan. That was why each Guru was referred to as mahal: Guru Nanak as the first mahal, Guru Angad as the second mahal, and in this way Guru Arjan as the fifth mahal. A Sikh who does not regard Guru Arjan as Baba Nanak is not a true Sikh. The firm belief of the Sikhs is that all the Gurus are Nanak. Indeed, Bhai Gurdas underscores the unity of Guruship from Guru Nanak to Guru Hargobind in one of his Vaars. This is reiterated in another Vaar in which the metaphors of light and water are used to emphasize that they all are the same.The idea of the unity of Guruship emphasized by Bhai Gurdas legitimized the succession of Guru Hargobind to face the rival claim of Prithi Chand and his descendants.
The ten Gurus organised their disciples into sangats and infused their personality again into the Sikhs. This led to a remarkable development in the institution of 'Guru-ship', which eventually became the Guru Panth, thus bestowing divinity on the people. ... The Sikh assemblies also acquired great sanctity, owing to the belief that the spirit of the Guru lived and moved among them collectively, the whole body being called the panth. This panth follows the path shown by the way the Gurus lived their lives, as also the precepts laid down by them. In turn, it is regarded as an embodiment of the Guru—Guru Panth. In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru, himself received baptism from the five Sikhs he had first initiated. The panth, the assembly and the Guru became one. After his demise, there was no living Guru for the Sikhs. The Shabad, in the presence of the sangat, became the Guru, the guiding light and in presence of Akalpurakh, the Timeless Being. The panth thus was invested with the personality of the Guru, and the incorporated Word became Gyan Guru (knowledge). This panth, called the Khalsa, was to be the Guru in spirit, and was authorised to work with collective responsibility, with Guru Granth Sahib as its guiding spirit.
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Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
The Sikh gurus (Punjabi: ਸਿੱਖ ਗੁਰੂ; Hindi: सिख गुरु) are the spiritual masters or sources of learning of Sikhism, who established the religion over the course of about two and a half centuries, beginning in 1469. The year 1469 marks the birth of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism. Nine other human gurus succeeded him. Then, in 1708, the tenth guru passed the guruship on to the holy Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, which is now considered the living guru by the followers of the Sikh faith. The guruship was also passed on to the Guru Panth, consisting of the Khalsa; however, this form of guruship went into decline following the rise of Ranjit Singh.
Descendants of the Sikh gurus, known as Guru-ansh, Guru-vans, or Ansi Sikhs, claim descent from the specific lineages of the Bedi, Trehan, Bhalla, and Sodhi clans of the Khatris that propagated from the Sikh gurus and their offspring. Most descendants are through the Sodhis, as seven out of the ten Sikh gurus were Sodhis. They were accorded elevated-levels of respect and veneration in the pre-colonial period beginning in the 18th century during Sikh-rule but this was challenged during the Singh Sabha movement, with them losing much power and influence in the period thereafter. Descendants of the Sikh gurus can be found residing at Una, Dera Baba Nanak, Khadur, Pinjore, Jalandhar, Guru Harsahai, Kartarpur, and Anandpur amid others. As per Harjot Singh Oberoi, the guru descendants were critical for the propagation of Sanatan Sikhism during the 18th and 19th centuries. Some of the families have intermarried, an example being Ramji (Kashmiran), daughter of Baba Khem Singh of the Bedi family, marrying Guru Bishen Singh of the Sodhi family of Guru Harsahai.
The principal Sikh scripture is the Adi Granth (First Scripture), more commonly called the Guru Granth Sahib. The second most important scripture of the Sikhs is the Dasam Granth. Both of these consist of text which was written or authorised by the Sikh Gurus. Within Sikhism the Sri Guru Granth Sahib or Adi Granth is more than just a scripture. Sikhs consider this Granth (holy book) to be a living Guru. The holy text spans 1430 pages and contains the actual words spoken by the Gurus of the Sikh religion and the words of various other Saints from other religions including Hinduism and Islam.
Sikhism, also known as Sikhi, is an Indian religion and philosophy that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent around the end of the 15th century CE. It is one of the most recently founded major religions and is followed by 25–30 million adherents, known as Sikhs. Sikhism developed from the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the faith's first guru, and the nine Sikh gurus who succeeded him. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), named the Guru Granth Sahib, which is the central religious scripture in Sikhism, as his successor. This brought the line of human gurus to a close. Sikhs regard the Guru Granth Sahib as the 11th and eternally living guru. The core beliefs and practices of Sikhism, articulated in the Guru Granth Sahib and other Sikh scriptures, include faith and meditation in the name of the one creator (Ik Onkar), the divine unity and equality of all humankind, engaging in selfless service to others (sevā), striving for justice for the benefit and prosperity of all (sarbat da bhala), and honest conduct and livelihood. Following this standard, Sikhism rejects claims that any particular religious tradition has a monopoly on absolute truth. As a consequence, Sikhs do not actively proselytise, although voluntary converts are generally accepted. Sikhism emphasises meditation and remembrance as a means to feel God's presence (simran), which can be expressed musically through kirtan or internally through naam japna (lit. 'meditation on God's name'). Baptised Sikhs are obliged to wear the five Ks, which are five articles of faith which physically distinguish Sikhs from non-Sikhs. Among these include the kesh (uncut hair). Most religious Sikh men thus do not cut their hair but rather wear a turban. The religion developed and evolved in times of religious persecution, gaining converts from both Hinduism and Islam. The Mughal emperors of India tortured and executed two of the Sikh gurus—Guru Arjan (1563–1606) and Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)—after they refused to convert to Islam. The persecution of the Sikhs triggered the founding of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 as an order to protect the freedom of conscience and religion, with members expressing the qualities of a sant-sipāhī ("saint-soldier").
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →The Greenwood District.
