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Katherine Johnson’s mathematical calculations helped guide some of America’s most important early space missions while she confronted the racial and gender barriers faced by Black women in twentieth-century America.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
| Springfield Model 1866 | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Type | Breech-loading rifle |
| Place of origin | United States |
| Service history | |
| In service | 1866–1873 |
| Used by | |
| Wars | |
| Production history | |
| Designer | Erskine S. Allin |
| Designed | 1866 |
| Manufacturer | Springfield Armory |
| Produced | 1866–1868 |
| No. built | Approx. 52,000 |
| Variants | Model 1866 short rifle, Model 1866 cadet rifle |
| Specifications | |
| Length | 56 in (1,400 mm) |
| Barrel length | 40.0 in (1,020 mm) |
| Cartridge | .50-70-450 |
| Action | Trapdoor |
| Rate of fire | User dependent; usually 8 to 10 rounds per minute |
| Feed system | Breech-loading |
| Sights | Open sights |
The Springfield Model 1866 was the second iteration of the Erskine S. Allin designed trapdoor breech-loading mechanism. Originally developed as a means of converting rifled muskets to breechloaders, the Allin modification ultimately became the basis for the definitive Springfield Model 1873, the first breech-loading rifle adopted by the United States War Department for manufacture and widespread issue to U.S. troops.[2]
The Model 1866 corrected problems encountered with the prototypical Springfield Model 1865, in particular a simplified and improved extractor and a superior .50 caliber centerfire cartridge (the Model 1865 used a .58 caliber rimfire cartridge with mediocre ballistics), among many other less significant changes. It employed a robust version of the trapdoor breechblock design originated by Erskine S. Allin, Master Armorer of the Springfield Armory.[2]
Approximately 52,000 .58 caliber Springfield Model 1863 rifled muskets were converted by Springfield Armory for use by U.S. troops, the barrels being relined and rifled to .50 caliber and the trapdoor breech system affixed. About half of the rifles produced were shipped to Europe for use in the Franco-Prussian War.[3]
The rifle was chambered for the powerful centerfire .50-70-450 cartridge (.50 caliber 450-grain (29 g) bullet; 70 grains (4.5 g) of powder). Though a significant improvement over the extractor of the Model 1865 rifle, the Model 1866 extractor was still excessively complicated and the extractor spring somewhat prone to breakage. However, it is a misconception that a broken extractor disabled the weapon. In the official 1867 government user booklet “Description and Rules for the Management of the Springfield Breech-Loading Rifle Musket, Model 1866”, the following is stated regarding a broken extractor and/or ejector: “It should be understood that the ejector and friction springs are convenient rather than necessary, and that the piece is not necessarily disabled if one or both of them should break, for the shell can be easily removed by the fingers after being loosened by the extractor hook.” Furthermore, the cleaning rod of the rifle can be used quite effectively to remove a stuck case in an emergency. Thus it is clear that this weapon is not as easily disabled as is sometimes believed.[2]
The Model 1866 was issued to U.S. troops in 1867, and was a major factor in the Wagon Box Fight and the Hayfield Fight, along the Bozeman Trail in 1867. The rapid rate of fire which could be achieved disrupted the tactics of attacking Sioux and Cheyenne forces, who had faced muzzle-loading rifles during the Fetterman massacre only a few months before. The new rifles contributed decisively to the survival and success of severely outnumbered U.S. troops in these engagements.[4]
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The Springfield Model 1866 was the second iteration of the Erskine S. Allin designed trapdoor breech-loading mechanism. Originally developed as a means of converting rifled muskets to breechloaders, the Allin modification ultimately became the basis for the definitive Springfield Model 1873, the first breech-loading rifle adopted by the United States War Department for manufacture and widespread issue to U.S. troops. The Model 1866 corrected problems encountered with the prototypical Springfield Model 1865, in particular a simplified and improved extractor and a superior .50 caliber centerfire cartridge (the Model 1865 used a .58 caliber rimfire cartridge with mediocre ballistics), among many other less significant changes. It employed a robust version of the trapdoor breechblock design originated by Erskine S. Allin, Master Armorer of the Springfield Armory. Approximately 52,000 .58 caliber Springfield Model 1863 rifled muskets were converted by Springfield Armory for use by U.S. troops, the barrels being relined and rifled to .50 caliber and the trapdoor breech system affixed. About half of the rifles produced were shipped to Europe for use in the Franco-Prussian War. The rifle was chambered for the powerful centerfire .50-70-450 cartridge (.50 caliber 450-grain (29 g) bullet; 70 grains (4.5 g) of powder). Though a significant improvement over the extractor of the Model 1865 rifle, the Model 1866 extractor was still excessively complicated and the extractor spring somewhat prone to breakage. However, it is a misconception that a broken extractor disabled the weapon. In the official 1867 government user booklet “Description and Rules for the Management of the Springfield Breech-Loading Rifle Musket, Model 1866”, the following is stated regarding a broken extractor and/or ejector: “It should be understood that the ejector and friction springs are convenient rather than necessary, and that the piece is not necessarily disabled if one or both of them should break, for the shell can be easily removed by the fingers after being loosened by the extractor hook.” Furthermore, the cleaning rod of the rifle can be used quite effectively to remove a stuck case in an emergency. Thus it is clear that this weapon is not as easily disabled as is sometimes believed. The Model 1866 was issued to U.S. troops in 1867, and was a major factor in the Wagon Box Fight and the Hayfield Fight, along the Bozeman Trail in 1867. The rapid rate of fire which could be achieved disrupted the tactics of attacking Sioux and Cheyenne forces, who had faced muzzle-loading rifles during the Fetterman massacre only a few months before. The new rifles contributed decisively to the survival and success of severely outnumbered U.S. troops in these engagements.
The Springfield Model 1865 was an early breech-loading rifle manufactured by U.S. Springfield Armory. It was a modification of the Springfield Model 1861 with trapdoor action. It was replaced by the Springfield Model 1866, which featured a more streamlined and robust breech mechanism.
The Springfield Model 1873 was a trapdoor breechblock service rifle produced by the Springfield Armory for the United States military. It was the first standard-issue breech-loading rifle adopted by the United States Army (although the Springfield Model 1866 had seen limited issue to troops along the Bozeman Trail in 1867). The rifle, in both full-length and carbine versions, was widely used in subsequent battles against Native Americans and was also issued in limited numbers to volunteer units in the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection. The Model 1873 was the fifth variation of the Erskine S. Allin trapdoor breechblock design. The infantry rifle model featured a 325⁄8-inch (829 mm) barrel, while the cavalry carbine used a 22-inch (560 mm) barrel. It was superseded by an improved model, the Springfield Model 1884, also in .45-70 caliber.
The term Springfield rifle may refer to any one of several types of small arms produced by the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts, for the United States armed forces. In modern usage, the term "Springfield rifle" most commonly refers to the Springfield Model 1903 for its use in both World Wars. There were also numerous limited production, experimental, marksmanship, and sporting rifles produced by the Springfield Armory which are referred to as "Springfield rifles". Some examples of the smoothbore Springfield Model 1842 musket that were later modified with rifling and used during the American Civil War may also be referred to as "Springfield rifles". Other experimental models are bolt-action replacements for Allin system like the Springfield Model 1871 Ward-Burton chamber in .50 Cal 32.5, and the Springfield Armory Model 1882/1884 Bolt Action Magazine Rifle, .45-70 Chaffee-Reese. Rifled musket: Springfield Model 1855 – .58 caliber Maynard tape primer/percussion lock rifled musket. Springfield Model 1861 – .58 caliber percussion lock rifled musket. Springfield Model 1863 – .58 caliber percussion lock rifled musket. Single-shot breechloading rifle: Springfield Model 1865 – .58-60 caliber trapdoor rifle. Springfield Model 1866 – .50-70 caliber trapdoor rifle. Springfield Model 1868 – .50-70 caliber trapdoor rifle. Springfield Model 1869 – .50-70 caliber trapdoor cadet rifle. Springfield Model 1870 – .50-70 caliber trapdoor rifle. Springfield Model 1870 Remington-Navy – .50-70 caliber rolling-block rifle. Springfield Model 1871 – .50-70 caliber rolling-block rifle. Springfield Model 1873 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor rifle. Springfield Model 1875 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor officer's rifle. Springfield Model 1877 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor carbine. Springfield Model 1880 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor rifle. Springfield Model 1882 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor short rifle. Springfield Model 1884 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor rifle. Springfield Model 1886 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor carbine. Springfield Model 1888 – .45-70 caliber trapdoor rifle. Repeating rifle: Springfield Model 1892–99 – .30-40 caliber Krag–Jørgensen bolt action rifle. Springfield Model 1903 – .30-03, .30-06 caliber bolt action rifle. Springfield Model 1922 – .22 LR caliber bolt action cadet rifle. Self-loading rifle: M1 Garand – .30-06 caliber semi-automatic rifle. Johnson M1941 Rifle - .30-06 caliber rotary locking semi-automatic rifle. M14 rifle – .308 caliber select-fire rifle.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Shirley Chisholm, elected in 1968.