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Wilmington, North Carolina once had a thriving Black middle class and an elected interracial government. In 1898 white supremacists used violence to overthrow that government, kill Black residents and drive many others from the city.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
| systemd-boot | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Developers | Kay Sievers, Harald Hoyer, Karel Zak |
| Release | June 28, 2012 |
| Written in | C |
| Type | Boot loader for UEFI systems |
| License | LGPL-2.1-or-later |
| Website | systemd |
| Repository | github |
systemd-boot is a free and open-source boot manager, previously known as gummiboot.
gummiboot was developed by the Red Hat employees Kay Sievers and Harald Hoyer and designed as a minimal alternative to GNU GRUB for systems using the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI). The boot loader automatically detected bootable images (including operating systems and other boot loaders), did not require a configuration file, provided a basic menu-based interface, and could also integrate with systemd to provide performance data.[1]
As a word play, the name "gummiboot" means "rubber (inflatable) boat" in German, the native language of its initial developers.[2][3] Despite being developed by two of its employees, Red Hat's Fedora Project did not use gummiboot for booting UEFI systems; instead, it used efilinux to chainload GRUB.[2][4]
gummiboot was licensed under LGPL-2.1-or-later, unlike GRUB which is licensed under the GPL-3.0-or-later. This distinction was intended to allow gummiboot to be suitable for use on UEFI systems implementing secure boot,[2] due to concerns surrounding its requirement to distribute all authorization keys (digital certificates) needed to run GPL-v3-licensed software if hardware restrictions such as secure boot are in effect.[4]
In May 2015, gummiboot was merged into systemd and renamed to "systemd-boot".[5][6][7][8]
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link)
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
systemd-boot is a free and open-source boot manager, previously known as gummiboot.
The Linux booting process involves multiple stages and is in many ways similar to the BSD and other Unix-style boot processes, from which it is derived. Although the Linux booting process depends very much on the computer architecture, those architectures share similar stages and software components, including system startup, bootloader execution, loading and startup of a Linux kernel image, and execution of various startup scripts and daemons. Those are grouped into 4 steps: system startup, bootloader stage, kernel stage, and init process. When a Linux system is powered up or reset, its processor will execute a specific firmware/program for system initialization, such as the power-on self-test, invoking the reset vector to start a program at a known address in flash/ROM (in embedded Linux devices), then load the bootloader into RAM for later execution. In IBM PC–compatible personal computers (PCs), this firmware/program is either a BIOS or a UEFI monitor, and is stored in the mainboard. In embedded Linux systems, this firmware/program is called boot ROM. After being loaded into RAM, the bootloader (also called first-stage bootloader or primary bootloader) will execute to load the second-stage bootloader (also called secondary bootloader). The second-stage bootloader will load the kernel image into memory, decompress and initialize it, and then pass control to this kernel image. The second-stage bootloader also performs several operations on the system such as system hardware check, mounting the root device, loading the necessary kernel modules, etc. Finally, the first user-space process (init process) starts, and other high-level system initializations are performed (which involve with startup scripts). For each of these stages and components, there are different variations and approaches; for example, GRUB, systemd-boot, coreboot or Das U-Boot can be used as bootloaders (historical examples are LILO, SYSLINUX or Loadlin), while the startup scripts can be either traditional init-style, or the system configuration can be performed through modern alternatives such as systemd or runit.
systemd is a software suite for system and service management on Linux built to unify service configuration and behavior across Linux distributions. Its main component is an init system used to bootstrap user space and manage user processes. It also provides various daemons and utilities, including device management, login management, network connection management, and event logging. The name systemd adheres to the Unix convention of naming daemons by appending the letter d, and also plays on the French phrase Système D (a person's ability to quickly adapt and improvise in the face of problems). In Linux distributions, systemd is used as a replacement for Sysvinit and other init systems. Since 2015, nearly all Linux distributions have adopted systemd. It has been praised by developers and users of distributions that adopted it for providing a stable, fast out-of-the-box solution for issues that had existed in the Linux space for years. At the time of its adoption, it was the only parallel boot and init system offering centralized management of processes, daemons, services, and mount points. Critics of systemd contend it suffers from feature creep and has damaged interoperability across Unix-like operating systems (as it does not run on non-Linux Unix derivatives like BSD or Solaris). In addition, they contend systemd's large feature set creates a larger attack surface. This has led to the development of several minor Linux distributions replacing systemd with other init systems like SysVinit or OpenRC.
In Unix-like computer operating systems, init (short for initialization) is the first user-space process started during booting of the operating system. Init is a daemon process that continues running until the system is shut down. It is the direct or indirect ancestor of all other processes and automatically adopts all orphaned processes. Init is started by the kernel during the booting process; in most Unix-like systems, a kernel panic will occur if the kernel is unable to start it or if it dies for any reason. Init is typically assigned process identifier 1. In Unix systems such as System III and System V, the design of init diverged from the functionality provided by the init in Research Unix and its BSD derivatives. Up until the early 2010s, most Linux distributions employed a traditional init that was somewhat compatible with System V, while some distributions such as Slackware use BSD-style startup scripts, and other distributions such as Gentoo have their own customized versions. Since then, most Linux distributions have employed a more modern init system, with most employing the init provided by the systemd project. Some distributions have elected to create their own System V-init compatible system, such as Gentoo Linux's OpenRC and Void Linux's runit. These projects typically include features originally not in System V's init, such as multi-threading or interactive init. Most modern init systems are also able to dynamically start, stop and enable services after boot with prompting by the user.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Shirley Chisholm, elected in 1968.