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Wilmington, North Carolina once had a thriving Black middle class and an elected interracial government. In 1898 white supremacists used violence to overthrow that government, kill Black residents and drive many others from the city.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
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T-Stoff ([teː ʃtɔf]; 'substance T') was a stabilised high test peroxide used in Germany during World War II. T-Stoff was specified to contain 80% (occasionally 85%) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), remainder water, with traces (<0.1%) of stabilisers. Stabilisers used included 0.0025% phosphoric acid,[1] a mixture of phosphoric acid, sodium phosphate and 8-hydroxyquinoline,[2] and sodium stannate.[3]
The decomposition of T-Stoff into hot steam and oxygen caused by the addition of the catalyst Z-Stoff (an aqueous solution of permanganates) was used to drive the split-tube steam catapults which launched the V-1 flying bomb.[4]
Similarly generated steam was used to drive the turbopump in the German V2 rocket, and the pumps in several other rocket engines. The turbopump was used to transport fuel and oxidizer liquids under pressure to the rocket engine of the V2.[5]
Another of T-Stoff's many uses was to be combined as the oxidizer, with C-Stoff (methanol–hydrazine–water mixture) as the fuel, in the bipropellant Walter HWK 109-509 engine of the Messerschmitt Me 163 and Messerschmitt Me 263, at a ratio of approximately 3.1 parts T-Stoff oxidizer to one part C-Stoff fuel. Because the two substances were so visually similar, a complex testing system was developed to make sure that each propellant was put into the correct tanks of the Messerschmitt Me 163. This was because T-Stoff and C-Stoff are hypergolic propellants: they spontaneously ignite when mixed at normal temperatures. Even slight contamination between the T-Stoff oxidizer and the C-Stoff fuel was likely to cause an explosion.
Catalytic decomposition of T-Stoff by Z-Stoff was also used as a monopropellant in several "cold" Walter rocket engines, including early versions of the engine for the Me 163A, and rocket-assisted takeoff pack engines like the Walter HWK 109-500.
 | This section appears to contradict the article Josef Pöhs on the manner in which Pöhs died. (October 2026) |
Because of its extreme oxidizing potential, T-Stoff was a very dangerous chemical to handle, so special rubberized suits were required when working with it, as it would react with most cloth, leather, or other combustible material and cause it to spontaneously combust. T-Stoff corroded iron and steel, and thus had to be kept in aluminium tanks. Conversely, C-Stoff ate through aluminium and had to be kept in glass or enamel. T-Stoff containers were white, C-Stoff containers were yellow. The tanker trucks carrying T-Stoff and C-Stoff, clearly marked "T" and "C" were forbidden to come within 800 meters of each other.[6]
An illustration of the extreme hazard posed by T-Stoff is the grisly story of an ME-163 test pilot, Josef Pöhs. Upon a "sharp start" takeoff at the end of December 1943, the wheeled dolly bounced when jettisoned and hit the Komet, causing a fuel leak. Pöhs maintained enough control for a survivable crash landing, but was knocked unconscious. When the rescue crew arrived, they found Pöhs disintegrated by the leaking T-Stoff that had entered the cockpit.[7]
Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
T-Stoff ([teː ʃtɔf]; 'substance T') was a stabilised high test peroxide used in Germany during World War II. T-Stoff was specified to contain 80% (occasionally 85%) hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), remainder water, with traces (
C-Stoff ([t͡seː ʃtɔf]; "substance C") was a reductant used in bipropellant rocket fuels (as a fuel itself) developed by Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft in Germany during World War II. It was developed for use with T-Stoff (a high-test peroxide) as an oxidizer, which together with C-Stoff as the fuel, forms a hypergolic mixture. The proportions of the components in C-Stoff were developed to catalyse the decomposition of T-Stoff, promote combustion with the oxygen released by the decomposition, and sustain uniform combustion through sufficient quantity of the highly reactive hydrazine. The combination of the C-Stoff, used as a rocket fuel, with the T-Stoff used as the oxidizer, often resulted in spontaneous explosion from their combined nature as a hypergolic fuel combination, necessitating strict hygiene in fueling operations; there were numerous catastrophic explosions of the Messerschmitt Me 163 aircraft that employed this fuel system. Another hazard was toxicity to humans of each of the propellants.
Z-Stoff ([t͡sɛt ʃtɔf], "substance Z") was a name for calcium permanganate or sodium permanganate mixed in water. It was normally used as a catalyst for T-Stoff (high-test peroxide) in military rocket programs by Nazi Germany during World War II. Z-Stoff was used in the cold engine of the Messerschmitt Me 163A fighter aircraft, in the earlier, self-contained HWK 109-500 Starthilfe RATO booster motor for crewed aircraft (usually in pairs or multiples of two for such uses), and a smaller derivation of the Starthilfe unit, the HWK 109-507 booster engine used with the Henschel Hs 293 anti-ship guided missile. T-Stoff decomposed by Z-Stoff was commonly used by World War II German military to generate steam to drive fuel pumps in aircraft and rockets. The reaction produces manganese dioxide, which tended to clog the steam generators. Later generations of the Walter Rocket used solid-state catalyst instead of its water solution.
The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet is a rocket-powered interceptor aircraft primarily designed and produced by the German aircraft manufacturer Messerschmitt. It is the only operational rocket-powered fighter aircraft in history as well as the first piloted aircraft of any type to exceed 1,000 kilometres per hour (540 knots) in level flight. Development of what would become the Me 163 can be traced back to 1937 and the work of the German aeronautical engineer Alexander Lippisch and the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (DFS). Initially an experimental programme that drew upon traditional glider designs while integrating various new innovations such as the rocket engine, the development ran into organisational issues until Lippisch and his team were transferred to Messerschmitt in January 1939. Plans for a propeller-powered intermediary aircraft were quickly dropped in favour of proceeding directly to rocket propulsion. On 1 September 1941, the prototype performed its maiden flight, quickly demonstrating its unprecedented performance and the qualities of its design. Having been suitably impressed, German officials quickly enacted plans that aimed for the widespread introduction of Me 163 point-defence interceptors across Germany. During December 1941, work began on the upgraded Me 163B, which was optimized for large-scale production. During early July 1944, German test pilot Heini Dittmar reached 1,130 km/h (700 mph), an unofficial flight airspeed record that remained unmatched by turbojet-powered aircraft until 1953. That same year, the Me 163 began flying operational missions, being typically used to defend against incoming enemy bombing raids. As part of their alliance with the Empire of Japan, Germany provided design schematics and a single Me 163 to the country; this led to the development of the Mitsubishi J8M. By the end of the conflict, roughly 370 Komets had been completed, most of which were being used operationally. Some of the aircraft's shortcomings were never addressed, and it was less effective in combat than predicted. Capable of a maximum of 7.5 minutes of powered flight, its range fell short of projections and greatly limited its potential. Efforts to improve the aircraft were made (most notably the development of the Messerschmitt Me 263), but many of these did not see actual combat due to the sustained advance of the Allied powers into Germany in 1945. After being introduced into service the Me 163 was credited with the destruction of between 9 and 18 Allied aircraft against 10 losses. Aside from combat losses, numerous Me 163 pilots were killed upon takeoff or during testing and training flights. This high loss rate was, at least partially, a result of the later models' use of rocket propellant which was not only highly volatile but also corrosive and hazardous to humans. One noteworthy fatality was that of Josef Pöhs, a German fighter ace and Oberleutnant in the Luftwaffe, who was killed in 1943 through exposure to T-Stoff in combination with injuries sustained during a failed takeoff that ruptured a fuel line. Besides Nazi Germany, no nation ever made operational use of the Me 163; the only other operational rocket-powered aircraft was the Japanese Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka which was a manned flying bomb.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →Shirley Chisholm, elected in 1968.