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THE BHP WIRE —
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Explore the people, places, events, achievements, struggles and stories that shaped our journey.
Movements, leaders, victories and the continuing fight for equality.
Innovation, patents, science, technology and world-changing contributions.
Pioneers, champions, Negro Leagues, records, activism and excellence.
Meet the people whose lives, choices and achievements shaped the journey.
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Moments that changed communities, movements, institutions and the nation.
In August 1908, a white mob attacked Springfield, Illinois’s Black community, destroying homes and businesses and lynching two Black men. National outrage over the violence helped spur the movement that created the NAACP the following year.
MORE →Reflects the personal views, recollections, and perspective of the author, Mike Davis.
This is a personal recollection on the Move fire on May 13, 1985
Tropical climate is the first of the five major climate groups in the Köppen climate classification identified with the letter A. Tropical climates are defined by a monthly average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) or higher in the coolest month, featuring hot temperatures and high humidity all year-round. Annual precipitation is often abundant in tropical climates, and shows a seasonal rhythm but may have seasonal dryness to varying degrees.[how?] There are normally only two seasons in tropical climates, a wet (rainy/monsoon) season and a dry season. The annual temperature range in tropical climates is normally very small. Sunlight is intense in these climates.[how?]
There are three basic types of tropical climates within the tropical climate group: tropical rainforest climate (Af), tropical monsoon climate (Am) and tropical savanna or tropical wet and dry climate (Aw for dry winters, and As for dry summers), which are classified and distinguished by the precipitation levels of the driest month in those regions.[1]
The Köppen climate classification is the most widely used climate classification system.[2] It defines a tropical climate as a region where the mean temperature of the coldest month is greater than or equal to 18 °C (64 °F) and does not fit into the criteria for B-group climates, classifying them as an A-group (tropical climate group).[3] A-group regions are usually found in the tropics, below 23.5 latitude in both the southern and northern hemispheres; they include areas around the Equator, Central America, North-central portions of South America, central Africa, southern portions of Asia and parts of North Australia and the Pacific Ocean islands.[4]
In Group A, there are three types of this climate: the tropical rainforest climate (Af), tropical monsoon climate (Am) and tropical wet and dry or savanna climate (Aw or As). All of the three climates are classified by their Pdry (short for precipitation of the driest month). Tropical rainforest climate's Pdry should be greater than or equal 60 mm (2.4 in). Tropical monsoon climate's Pdry should be in the range from to 60 mm. Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate's Pdry should be less than .[3]
Tropical climates normally have only two seasons, a wet season and a dry season. Depending on the location of the region, the wet and dry seasons can have varying duration. Annual temperature changes in the tropics are small. Due to the high temperatures and abundant rainfall, much of the plant life grows throughout the year. High temperature and humidity is the most suitable environment for epiphytes to grow.[5] In many tropical climates, vegetation grows in layers: shrubs under tall trees, bushes under shrubs and grasses under bushes. Tropical plants are rich in resources, including coffee, cocoa and oil palm.[6][7] Listed below are the types of vegetation unique to each of the three climates that make up the tropical climate biome.
Tropical rainforest vegetation including: Bengal bamboo, bougainvillea, curare, coconut tree, durian and banana.
Tropical monsoon vegetation including: teak, deodar, rosewood, sandalwood and bamboo.
Tropical wet and dry or savanna vegetation including: acacia senegal, elephant grass, jarrah tree, gum tree eucalyptus and whistling thorn.
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The Köppen classification identifies tropical rainforest climates (Zone Af: f = "feucht", German for moist) as usually having north and south latitudinal ranges of just 5-10 degrees from the equator.[9][10] Tropical rainforest climates have high temperatures: the yearly average temperature is normally between 21 and 30 °C (70 and 86 °F).[11][12] The precipitation can reach over 100 inches a year.[11][12] The seasons are evenly distributed throughout the year, and there is almost no drought period here.[10] Regions that contain tropical rainforest climate mainly include the upper Amazon basin of South America, the Northern Zaire (Congo) basin of Africa, and the islands of the East Indies.[10]
The tropical rainforest climate differs from other subtypes of tropical climates as it has more kinds of trees due to its precipitation.[12] The large number of trees contribute back to the humidity of the climate because of the transpiration, which is the process of water evaporated from the surface of living plants to the atmosphere. The warmth and abundant precipitation heavily contributes to the diversity and characteristics of vegetations under the tropical rainforest climate.[11] The vegetations develop a vertical stratification and various growth forms to receive enough sunlight, which is unusual under other types of climate.[11]
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The Köppen classification tool identifies tropical monsoon climate as having small annual temperature ranges, high temperatures, and plentiful precipitation. This climate also has a short dry season which almost always occurs in the winter.[13] The tropical monsoon climate is often found within countries in the south and southeast Asia region between the latitude of 10 degrees north and the Tropic of Cancer. It can also be found in West Africa and South America. The annual temperature of regions under tropical monsoon climate is also stable.
The tropical monsoon climate has the following main characteristic. The average annual temperature is around 27.05 °C (80.69 °F) and has an average annual temperature range of about 3.6 °C (6 °F).[14] Distinction between wet and drought seasons, the tropical monsoon climate is different from other tropical climates because of its uneven precipitation throughout the year.
There are three main seasons of tropical monsoon climate: the cool dry season is from fall to late winter, the hot dry season is in the spring and the rainy or monsoon season is near or during the summer months.[15]
The tropical monsoon forest mainly consists of three layered structures. The first layer is the surface layer which is a very dense layer of shrubs and grasses. The second layer is the understory layer with trees about 15 meters tall. The top layer is called the canopy tree layer which has trees from 25 to 40 meters tall and those trees grow closely while above is the emergent layer with sporadic trees taller than 35 meters.[16]
Tropical savanna climates, or tropical wet and dry climates, are mainly located between the 10° and 25° north-south latitudes, and often occur at the outer margins of the tropics. Typical regions include central Africa, parts of South America, as well as northern and eastern Australia.[17] The temperature range of savanna climate is between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). In summer, the temperature is between 25 °C and 30 °C, while in winter the temperature is between 20 °C and 30 °C, but still stays above an 18 °C mean.[18] The annual precipitation is between 700 and 1000 mm. The driest months are generally in the winter and they have less than 60 mm of rainfall (often much less).[19]
Regions under the savanna climate usually have lands covered with flat grassland vegetation with areas of woodlands. Those grassland biomes cover almost 20% of the Earth's surface.[20] The grassland vegetation types include Rhodes grass, red oats grass, star grass and lemongrass.[21]
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Source: Wikipedia. Article content is retrieved live through the MediaWiki API.
Tropical climate is the first of the five major climate groups in the Köppen climate classification identified with the letter A. Tropical climates are defined by a monthly average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) or higher in the coolest month, featuring hot temperatures and high humidity all year-round. Annual precipitation is often abundant in tropical climates, and shows a seasonal rhythm but may have seasonal dryness to varying degrees. There are normally only two seasons in tropical climates, a wet (rainy/monsoon) season and a dry season. The annual temperature range in tropical climates is normally very small. Sunlight is intense in these climates. There are three basic types of tropical climates within the tropical climate group: tropical rainforest climate (Af), tropical monsoon climate (Am) and tropical savanna or tropical wet and dry climate (Aw for dry winters, and As for dry summers), which are classified and distinguished by the precipitation levels of the driest month in those regions.
A humid subtropical climate is a temperate climate type, characterized by long and hot summers, and cool to mild winters. These climates normally lie on the southeast side of all continents (except Antarctica), generally between latitudes 25° and 40° and are located poleward from adjacent tropical climates, and equatorward from either humid continental (in North America and Asia) or oceanic climates (in other continents). It is also known as warm temperate climate in some climate classifications. Under the Köppen climate classification, Cfa and Cwa climates are either described as humid subtropical climates or warm temperate climates. This climate features mean temperature in the coldest month between −3 °C (27 °F) (or 0 °C (32 °F)) and 18 °C (64 °F) and mean temperature in the warmest month 22 °C (72 °F) or higher. However, while some climatologists have opted to describe this climate type as a "humid subtropical climate", Köppen himself never used this term. The humid subtropical climate classification was officially created under the Trewartha climate classification. In this classification, climates are termed humid subtropical when they have at least 8 months with a mean temperature above 10 °C (50 °F). While many subtropical climates tend to be located at or near coastal locations, in some cases, they extend inland, most notably in China and the United States, where they exhibit more pronounced seasonal variations and sharper contrasts between summer and winter, as part of a gradient between the hotter tropical climates of the southern coasts and the colder continental climates to the north and further inland. As such, the climate can be said to exhibit somewhat different features depending on whether it is found inland, or in a maritime position.
Tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate is a tropical climate sub-type that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification categories Aw (for a dry "winter") and As (for a dry "summer"). The driest month has less than 60 mm (2.4 in) of precipitation and also less than 100 − ( Total Annual Precipitation (mm) 25 ) {\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\text{Total Annual Precipitation (mm)}}{25}}\right)} mm of precipitation. This latter fact is in a direct contrast to a tropical monsoon climate, whose driest month sees less than 60 mm (2.4 in) of precipitation but has more than 100 − ( Total Annual Precipitation (mm) 25 ) {\textstyle 100-\left({\frac {\text{Total Annual Precipitation (mm)}}{25}}\right)} of precipitation. In essence, a tropical savanna climate tends to either see less overall rainfall than a tropical monsoon climate or have more pronounced dry season(s). For example, if the total rainfall is less than 1,000 mm (39 in), the equation above yields a number greater than 60 mm (and so excludes the possibility of being a tropical monsoon climate). It is impossible for a tropical savanna climate to have more than 2,500 mm (98 in) as such would result in a negative value in that equation. In tropical savanna climates, the dry season can become severe, and often drought conditions prevail during the course of the year. Tropical savanna climates often feature tree-studded grasslands due to its dryness, rather than thick jungle. It is this widespread occurrence of tall, coarse grass (called savanna) which has led to Aw and As climates often being referred to as the tropical savanna. However, there is some doubt whether tropical grasslands are climatically induced. Additionally, pure savannas, without trees, are the exception rather than the rule.
A tropical rainforest climate, in some cases classified as an equatorial climate, is a tropical climate sub-type usually found within 10 to 15 degrees latitude of the equator. There are some other areas at higher latitudes, such as the coast of southeast Florida, United States, and Okinawa, Japan that fall into the tropical rainforest climate category. They experience high mean annual temperatures, small temperature ranges, and rain that falls throughout the year. Regions with this climate are typically designated Af by the Köppen climate classification. A tropical rainforest climate is typically hot, very humid, and wet with no dry season. The difference in temperature between day and night may be larger than the average change in temperature during the year. As the name implies, the most common biome within this climate is tropical rainforest. However, a significant portion of what is considered “tropical rainforest” lies in other A-type climates, and some regions in this climate are not forest but rather flooded grasslands and savannas.
Before the 1921 destruction of Tulsa’s Greenwood District, Black residents had created a remarkable center of business and community life. The district included stores, professional offices, entertainment venues and homes owned by Black citizens. Understanding Greenwood means learning what was built—not only what was burned.
MORE →The Greenwood District.
